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BT 26.250 566.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(articulation is given for such realities or the depth of those realities. Information supplied has to do with )] TJ ET
BT 470.080 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(what,)] TJ ET
BT 493.382 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(where)] TJ ET
BT 519.932 566.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and )] TJ ET
BT 541.615 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(how big)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(disasters have been, rather than focusing on )] TJ ET
BT 221.357 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(why)] TJ ET
BT 238.693 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( or to )] TJ ET
BT 263.623 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(whom.)] TJ ET
BT 292.337 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( The realities of the )] TJ ET
BT 377.962 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(status quo)] TJ ET
BT 422.948 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( tend to remain unexplored, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 542.595 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(obscure, and insufficiently penetrated.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 523.191 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Specification of these four risk drivers could potentially be taken to assume that it is not necessary to look further�or, to the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 511.286 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(extreme, that vulnerability happens in no other contexts, in no other ways, in no other places, or with no other �drivers� of its )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 499.381 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(own. That is not the case \(e.g. Harwell, 2000; Hewitt, 1983, 1997; Lewis, 1999; Wisner et al., 2004\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 453.290 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(3)] TJ ET
BT 458.109 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
BT 462.928 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(9)] TJ ET
BT 467.746 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 477.384 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(11)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 487.021 499.381 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Vulnerability )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 487.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(accrues by its own �drivers� and by its own volition, not always contained by the four named risk drivers, especially through a )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 475.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(wide variety of dynamic and often long-term processes \(Lewis, 1987\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 323.196 477.079 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(12)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 332.833 475.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, the neglect of which encourages disaster risk creation )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 463.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(DRC\).)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 444.262 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How much is disregard of this interpretation of vulnerability, as well as equal disregard for its behavioural causes as cited in this )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 432.357 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(paper, the reason why disaster risk reduction \(DRR\) is not being achieved at the desired rate? A survey involving 7,000 people )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 420.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(in 48 countries \(GNCSODR, 2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 175.796 421.960 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(13)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 185.433 420.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( indicated �a significant gap between national and local level action� \(p. iv\) and that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 408.548 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(progress at the present rate �will not deliver the required reduction in disaster losses by 2015� \(p. 12\). Consequently, at its )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 396.643 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(current pace of implementing change, the HFA cannot reach its stated goals, especially Priority Action 4 �Reduce the underlying )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 384.738 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(risk factors�.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 365.334 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Interpreting �The Good, the Bad and the Ugly� in its three categories, this paper identifies specific and pragmatic examples of on-)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 353.429 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the-ground realities of vulnerability for comparison with wide-scale, remote, and relatively top-down conceptions within )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 341.524 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(necessarily internationally agreed and produced documents. The examples are presented as vignettes, illustrating that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 329.619 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�vulnerability drivers� often emanate from greed and the misuse of political and commercial power. That occurs in all contexts, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 317.715 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(not just in the four named risk drivers. It is within these behavioural climates that DRC festers.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 298.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Here, �the good� is interpreted as positive DRR measures, but expounding on some of the problems with the presentation of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 286.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(what is taken to be �good�. Meanwhile, �the bad� and �the ugly� are interpreted as processes that increase, or fail to decrease, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 274.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(vulnerability and that actively or inertially stymie or constrain DRR efforts. �Bad� is effectively malfeasance�actions in which the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 262.596 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(perpetrators to a large degree understand, or should understand, that their specific choices, over which they have power, are )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 250.691 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(causing disaster-related problems, usually \(although not always\) for others. �Ugly� does not refer to �ugly in appearance�, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 238.786 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(instead implying �ugly in intent and action� even though there might be limited understanding of the vulnerability- and disaster-)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 226.881 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(related implications, not out of wilful ignorance but due to realities, especially externally imposed realities, that often preclude )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 214.977 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(integration of disaster implications into decision-making processes.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 195.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As will become clear through the specific case studies, the line between �bad� and �ugly� is often blurred and the literature has )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 183.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(ongoing debates regarding whether or not such activities should be separated. Cannon \(2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 432.172 185.174 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(14)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 441.809 183.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, argued that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 171.762 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(some disasters and vulnerability are �innocent� because sometimes people make active choices�perhaps through group )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 159.858 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(behaviour, religious beliefs, or priorities other than disaster risk reduction�to accept vulnerabilities and risks for livelihood or )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 147.953 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(quality of life purposes. That is fair as a truism, corroborated through ample field evidence as well as our own day-to-day )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 136.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(decisions as disaster professionals, but the moniker �innocent� is unconvincing and introduces the possibility of external )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 124.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(pressures, or layers of ethical judgements, which ought to be further explored.)] TJ ET
Q
q
15.000 35.334 577.500 741.666 re W n
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 26.250 767.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(investigation of the relationship between disasters and poverty in Fiji:)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 748.071 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The Fiji case study confirms that a two-way relationship exists between natural disasters and poverty, and suggests that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 736.167 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(initiatives to reduce disaster risks can also help reduce poverty. Further, it also confirms that efforts to reduce income poverty )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 724.262 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(and other basic social conditions can help reduce people�s vulnerability to disaster. That is, any poverty reduction strategy )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 712.357 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(should also account for the DRR issues, for synergy in reducing both disaster impacts and poverty.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 692.952 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(So far, so good, but it has taken a very long time to have this short conceptual distance engrained in international documents. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 681.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR \(2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 94.510 682.555 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 99.328 681.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, is a major step towards disaster reduction \(DRR\) and is a significant leap from the comparatively )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 669.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(platitudinous 2005 )] TJ ET
BT 108.091 669.143 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Hyogo Framework for Action )] TJ ET
BT 234.334 669.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(HFA; UNISDR, 2005\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 330.226 670.650 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(6)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 335.044 669.143 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(, )] TJ ET
BT 340.465 669.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(as part of the final report of the Hyogo World )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 657.238 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Conference on Disaster Reduction of the same year. This, notwithstanding that those same linkages were forged in the early )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 645.333 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1970s \(e.g. O�Keefe et al., 1976\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 167.167 646.841 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(7)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 171.985 645.333 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and, frequently, afterwards \(e.g. Hewitt, 1983\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 372.494 646.841 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 377.313 645.333 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 625.929 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Profusely mapped and tabulated, the global, national, and local impacts of disasters are described as exacerbated by ��risk )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 614.024 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(drivers� such as increasing urbanisation, poor urban governance, vulnerable rural livelihoods and the decline of ecosystems� )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 602.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(UNISDR, 2009, p. iii\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 119.977 603.626 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 124.795 602.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Stated as leading to �massive human misery and crippling economic losses� \(UNISDR, 2009, p. iii\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 554.478 603.626 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 559.297 602.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 590.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(political origins of poverty and of vulnerability to disasters, however, receive no fully direct or explicit mention and neither does )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 578.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�greedy and unjust behaviour of concessionaires, politicians, and law enforcement officers� \(Harwell, 2000, p. 330\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 518.830 579.817 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(3)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 523.648 578.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Limited )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 566.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(articulation is given for such realities or the depth of those realities. Information supplied has to do with )] TJ ET
BT 470.080 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(what,)] TJ ET
BT 493.382 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(where)] TJ ET
BT 519.932 566.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and )] TJ ET
BT 541.615 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(how big)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(disasters have been, rather than focusing on )] TJ ET
BT 221.357 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(why)] TJ ET
BT 238.693 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( or to )] TJ ET
BT 263.623 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(whom.)] TJ ET
BT 292.337 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( The realities of the )] TJ ET
BT 377.962 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(status quo)] TJ ET
BT 422.948 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( tend to remain unexplored, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 542.595 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(obscure, and insufficiently penetrated.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 523.191 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Specification of these four risk drivers could potentially be taken to assume that it is not necessary to look further�or, to the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 511.286 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(extreme, that vulnerability happens in no other contexts, in no other ways, in no other places, or with no other �drivers� of its )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 499.381 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(own. That is not the case \(e.g. Harwell, 2000; Hewitt, 1983, 1997; Lewis, 1999; Wisner et al., 2004\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 453.290 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(3)] TJ ET
BT 458.109 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
BT 462.928 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(9)] TJ ET
BT 467.746 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 477.384 500.888 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(11)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 487.021 499.381 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Vulnerability )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 487.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(accrues by its own �drivers� and by its own volition, not always contained by the four named risk drivers, especially through a )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 475.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(wide variety of dynamic and often long-term processes \(Lewis, 1987\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 323.196 477.079 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(12)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 332.833 475.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, the neglect of which encourages disaster risk creation )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 463.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(DRC\).)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 444.262 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How much is disregard of this interpretation of vulnerability, as well as equal disregard for its behavioural causes as cited in this )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 432.357 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(paper, the reason why disaster risk reduction \(DRR\) is not being achieved at the desired rate? A survey involving 7,000 people )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 420.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(in 48 countries \(GNCSODR, 2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 175.796 421.960 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(13)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 185.433 420.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( indicated �a significant gap between national and local level action� \(p. iv\) and that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 408.548 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(progress at the present rate �will not deliver the required reduction in disaster losses by 2015� \(p. 12\). Consequently, at its )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 396.643 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(current pace of implementing change, the HFA cannot reach its stated goals, especially Priority Action 4 �Reduce the underlying )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 384.738 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(risk factors�.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 365.334 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Interpreting �The Good, the Bad and the Ugly� in its three categories, this paper identifies specific and pragmatic examples of on-)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 353.429 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the-ground realities of vulnerability for comparison with wide-scale, remote, and relatively top-down conceptions within )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 341.524 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(necessarily internationally agreed and produced documents. The examples are presented as vignettes, illustrating that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 329.619 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�vulnerability drivers� often emanate from greed and the misuse of political and commercial power. That occurs in all contexts, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 317.715 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(not just in the four named risk drivers. It is within these behavioural climates that DRC festers.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 298.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Here, �the good� is interpreted as positive DRR measures, but expounding on some of the problems with the presentation of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 286.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(what is taken to be �good�. Meanwhile, �the bad� and �the ugly� are interpreted as processes that increase, or fail to decrease, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 274.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(vulnerability and that actively or inertially stymie or constrain DRR efforts. �Bad� is effectively malfeasance�actions in which the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 262.596 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(perpetrators to a large degree understand, or should understand, that their specific choices, over which they have power, are )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 250.691 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(causing disaster-related problems, usually \(although not always\) for others. �Ugly� does not refer to �ugly in appearance�, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 238.786 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(instead implying �ugly in intent and action� even though there might be limited understanding of the vulnerability- and disaster-)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 226.881 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(related implications, not out of wilful ignorance but due to realities, especially externally imposed realities, that often preclude )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 214.977 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(integration of disaster implications into decision-making processes.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 195.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As will become clear through the specific case studies, the line between �bad� and �ugly� is often blurred and the literature has )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 183.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(ongoing debates regarding whether or not such activities should be separated. Cannon \(2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 432.172 185.174 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(14)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 441.809 183.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, argued that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 171.762 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(some disasters and vulnerability are �innocent� because sometimes people make active choices�perhaps through group )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 159.858 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(behaviour, religious beliefs, or priorities other than disaster risk reduction�to accept vulnerabilities and risks for livelihood or )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 147.953 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(quality of life purposes. That is fair as a truism, corroborated through ample field evidence as well as our own day-to-day )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 136.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(decisions as disaster professionals, but the moniker �innocent� is unconvincing and introduces the possibility of external )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 124.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(pressures, or layers of ethical judgements, which ought to be further explored.)] TJ ET
Q
q
15.000 35.334 577.500 741.666 re W n
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 26.250 767.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(investigation of the relationship between disasters and poverty in Fiji:)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 748.071 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The Fiji case study confirms that a two-way relationship exists between natural disasters and poverty, and suggests that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 736.167 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(initiatives to reduce disaster risks can also help reduce poverty. Further, it also confirms that efforts to reduce income poverty )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 724.262 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(and other basic social conditions can help reduce people�s vulnerability to disaster. That is, any poverty reduction strategy )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 712.357 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(should also account for the DRR issues, for synergy in reducing both disaster impacts and poverty.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 692.952 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(So far, so good, but it has taken a very long time to have this short conceptual distance engrained in international documents. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 681.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR \(2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 94.510 682.555 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 99.328 681.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, is a major step towards disaster reduction \(DRR\) and is a significant leap from the comparatively )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 669.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(platitudinous 2005 )] TJ ET
BT 108.091 669.143 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Hyogo Framework for Action )] TJ ET
BT 234.334 669.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(HFA; UNISDR, 2005\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 330.226 670.650 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(6)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 335.044 669.143 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(, )] TJ ET
BT 340.465 669.143 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(as part of the final report of the Hyogo World )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 657.238 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Conference on Disaster Reduction of the same year. This, notwithstanding that those same linkages were forged in the early )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 645.333 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1970s \(e.g. O�Keefe et al., 1976\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 167.167 646.841 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(7)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 171.985 645.333 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and, frequently, afterwards \(e.g. Hewitt, 1983\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 372.494 646.841 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 377.313 645.333 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 625.929 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Profusely mapped and tabulated, the global, national, and local impacts of disasters are described as exacerbated by ��risk )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 614.024 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(drivers� such as increasing urbanisation, poor urban governance, vulnerable rural livelihoods and the decline of ecosystems� )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 602.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(UNISDR, 2009, p. iii\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 119.977 603.626 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 124.795 602.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Stated as leading to �massive human misery and crippling economic losses� \(UNISDR, 2009, p. iii\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 554.478 603.626 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 559.297 602.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 590.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(political origins of poverty and of vulnerability to disasters, however, receive no fully direct or explicit mention and neither does )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 578.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�greedy and unjust behaviour of concessionaires, politicians, and law enforcement officers� \(Harwell, 2000, p. 330\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 518.830 579.817 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(3)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 523.648 578.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Limited )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 566.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(articulation is given for such realities or the depth of those realities. Information supplied has to do with )] TJ ET
BT 470.080 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(what,)] TJ ET
BT 493.382 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(where)] TJ ET
BT 519.932 566.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and )] TJ ET
BT 541.615 566.405 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(how big)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(disasters have been, rather than focusing on )] TJ ET
BT 221.357 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(why)] TJ ET
BT 238.693 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( or to )] TJ ET
BT 263.623 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(whom.)] TJ ET
BT 292.337 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( The realities of the )] TJ ET
BT 377.962 554.500 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(status quo)] TJ ET
BT 422.948 554.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( tend to remain unexplored, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 542.595 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(obscure, and insufficiently penetrated.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 523.191 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Specification of these four risk drivers could potentially be taken to assume that it is not necessary to look further�or, to the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 511.286 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(extreme, that vulnerability happens in no other contexts, in no other ways, in no other places, or with no other �drivers� of its )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 499.381 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(own. That is not the case \(e.g. Harwell, 2000; Hewitt, 1983, 1997; Lewis, 1999; Wisner et al., 2004\))] TJ ET
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BT 487.021 499.381 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Vulnerability )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 487.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(accrues by its own �drivers� and by its own volition, not always contained by the four named risk drivers, especially through a )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 475.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(wide variety of dynamic and often long-term processes \(Lewis, 1987\))] TJ ET
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BT 332.833 475.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, the neglect of which encourages disaster risk creation )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 463.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(\(DRC\).)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 444.262 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How much is disregard of this interpretation of vulnerability, as well as equal disregard for its behavioural causes as cited in this )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 432.357 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(paper, the reason why disaster risk reduction \(DRR\) is not being achieved at the desired rate? A survey involving 7,000 people )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 420.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(in 48 countries \(GNCSODR, 2009\))] TJ ET
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BT 175.796 421.960 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(13)] TJ ET
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BT 185.433 420.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( indicated �a significant gap between national and local level action� \(p. iv\) and that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 408.548 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(progress at the present rate �will not deliver the required reduction in disaster losses by 2015� \(p. 12\). Consequently, at its )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 396.643 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(current pace of implementing change, the HFA cannot reach its stated goals, especially Priority Action 4 �Reduce the underlying )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 384.738 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(risk factors�.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 365.334 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Interpreting �The Good, the Bad and the Ugly� in its three categories, this paper identifies specific and pragmatic examples of on-)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 353.429 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the-ground realities of vulnerability for comparison with wide-scale, remote, and relatively top-down conceptions within )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 341.524 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(necessarily internationally agreed and produced documents. The examples are presented as vignettes, illustrating that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 329.619 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�vulnerability drivers� often emanate from greed and the misuse of political and commercial power. That occurs in all contexts, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 317.715 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(not just in the four named risk drivers. It is within these behavioural climates that DRC festers.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 298.310 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Here, �the good� is interpreted as positive DRR measures, but expounding on some of the problems with the presentation of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 286.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(what is taken to be �good�. Meanwhile, �the bad� and �the ugly� are interpreted as processes that increase, or fail to decrease, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 274.500 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(vulnerability and that actively or inertially stymie or constrain DRR efforts. �Bad� is effectively malfeasance�actions in which the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 262.596 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(perpetrators to a large degree understand, or should understand, that their specific choices, over which they have power, are )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 250.691 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(causing disaster-related problems, usually \(although not always\) for others. �Ugly� does not refer to �ugly in appearance�, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 238.786 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(instead implying �ugly in intent and action� even though there might be limited understanding of the vulnerability- and disaster-)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 226.881 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(related implications, not out of wilful ignorance but due to realities, especially externally imposed realities, that often preclude )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 214.977 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(integration of disaster implications into decision-making processes.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 195.572 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As will become clear through the specific case studies, the line between �bad� and �ugly� is often blurred and the literature has )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 183.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(ongoing debates regarding whether or not such activities should be separated. Cannon \(2008\))] TJ ET
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BT 26.250 171.762 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(some disasters and vulnerability are �innocent� because sometimes people make active choices�perhaps through group )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 159.858 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(behaviour, religious beliefs, or priorities other than disaster risk reduction�to accept vulnerabilities and risks for livelihood or )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 147.953 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(quality of life purposes. That is fair as a truism, corroborated through ample field evidence as well as our own day-to-day )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 136.048 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(decisions as disaster professionals, but the moniker �innocent� is unconvincing and introduces the possibility of external )] TJ ET
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BT 26.250 767.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(If someone with full knowledge of flood risk settles in a floodplain, thereby encouraging others to do so even though the others )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 755.571 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(do not have full knowledge of the flood risk, how �innocent� is that? If people make livelihood choices to live on the slopes of a )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 743.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(frequently erupting volcano, are we certain that social processes and power structures did not preclude other options? How do )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 731.762 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(we balance the vulnerabilities and risks of cultivating fertile, landslide-prone hillsides in comparison to land which is less prone )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 719.857 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to landslides but more prone to rainfall-related drought? More importantly, what social processes or underlying factors led to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 707.952 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(those two choices \(or outmigration\) as being the only options available?)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 688.548 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Many of the answers to these questions, and the separation of �bad� and �ugly�, could relate to who and which processes )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 676.643 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(provide the options available and who or which processes take the final decision within the bounded frame of only certain )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 664.738 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(options being available. A single paper cannot delve into that for the numerous realities of vulnerability presented here. For )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 652.833 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(discussion purposes, we separate �the bad� and �the ugly�, recognising that, at deeper levels of the case studies, they are likely )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 640.929 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to be heavily intertwined�and even inexorably linked to �the good�. As per the final example in the previous paragraph, the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 629.024 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(decision to farm landslide-prone hills can be a drought risk reduction strategy while the decision to farm drought-prone plains )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 617.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(can be a landslide risk reduction strategy. The good, the bad, and the ugly are inexorably linked�and it is not even clear that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 605.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�good� means the minimum risk feasible \(e.g. Kelman and Mather, 2008\))] TJ ET
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BT 349.087 605.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 568.612 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(The good � as far as it goes)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 548.658 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Internationally produced United Nations documents reflect the valid concerns of that organisation and of its member )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 536.753 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(governments. They also embody the characteristic disadvantage that governments do not welcome exposure of their own )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 524.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(shortcomings. How else could governments be expected to commit themselves to signing up to report content unless there are )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 512.943 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(no indictments, no fault-finding, no blame, and no negatives reflecting on themselves?)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 493.539 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Consequently, entire initiatives, such as the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, the HFA, and the Global Assessment )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 481.634 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reports, are perpetually required to trade on well-meaning innate optimism, positive drive, and honourable common good for )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 469.729 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the future of humankind. What such documents do not express, therefore, is that governments, societies, and communities, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 457.824 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(whether rural or urban, include the bad and the ugly as well as the good, the corrupt as well as the ethical, and the inert and the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 445.920 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(weak as well as the powerfully active.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 426.515 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Such processes, and these documents, reflect and are the product of an assumed �equality of the good� that cannot represent )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 414.610 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(or express society�s inequalities and injustices that are themselves a principal cause of vulnerability. In part expressed as )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 402.705 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�poverty�, causes of poverty are not always entirely recognised or considered � except that of disasters themselves. As this )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 390.801 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(paper demonstrates through the lens of vulnerability to disasters, poverty is not simply a static, immutable and inconvenient fact. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 378.896 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Instead, it is the by-product of actions and inactions across economic and governance sectors. That it may be rare for these )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 366.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(sectors to be represented within the DRR mandate does not make them irrelevant for DRR. Conversely, it becomes crucial for )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 355.086 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR issues to be represented, comprehended and implemented integrally within the management of each of those other )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 343.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(sectors, directly placing DRR work within and across other development activities.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 323.777 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(But even if that were achieved, another factor emerges: DRR appears to not always acknowledge that societies inevitably and )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 311.872 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(invariably include those with less admirable motives \(Cannon, 2007\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 319.940 313.379 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(16)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 329.577 311.872 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Greed and self-indulgence serving to exacerbate )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 299.967 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(inequality \(Dorling, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 134.621 301.475 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(17)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 144.259 299.967 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, and other people�s vulnerability, is an unfortunate reality that prevails beyond most concepts of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 288.063 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(governance, operating powerfully and pervasively )] TJ ET
BT 243.012 288.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(inter alia)] TJ ET
BT 279.857 288.063 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( contrary to the objectives of DRR at domestic, group, corporate and )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 276.158 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(institutional levels. Good governance applies to the rural as well as to the urban, to the rich as well as the poor. It cannot be )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 264.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(restricted to initiating or permitting favourable systems and procedures but has to prevent and inhibit other procedures that, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 252.348 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(whilst advantageous to the powerful few, result in widespread deprivation for the many.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 232.944 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Whilst exclusion of the negative is accepted practice for internationally produced documents, it will continue as necessary to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 221.039 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(acknowledge internationally investigative journalism \(Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 434.824 222.546 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(18)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 444.461 221.039 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, media exposures of biased )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 209.134 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(reportage, and socially conscientious revelatory �leaks�, in order to achieve the needed greater awareness of prevailing political )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 197.229 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(and social realities. These courageous sources serve usefully to temper fairy-tale fantasies as they take their place alongside )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 185.325 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the acceptably comfortable but complacent, internationally conceived, jointly contributed, and governmentally signed documents )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 173.420 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(� along with some guidelines and academic texts.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 154.015 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Disasters for vulnerable people are often the consequence of longer-term negative pasts created by others, against which )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 142.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(concepts of personal and community resilience have sometimes been powerless \(e.g. Hewitt, 1983, 1997; Lewis, 1999; Wisner )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 130.206 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(et al., 2004, 2012\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 104.845 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
BT 109.663 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(9)] TJ ET
BT 114.482 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 124.119 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(11)] TJ ET
BT 133.757 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(19)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 143.394 130.206 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. DRR needs to recognise these processes of �epidemiological� vulnerability now, so that disasters of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 118.301 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the future might realistically be reduced: �Disaster reduction must maintain temporal awareness of pasts and futures, as well as )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 106.396 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(of the present, so that as vulnerability processes come to be recognised, conditions and consequences are reduced. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 94.491 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Meanwhile, resilience fiddles on the re-arranged deckchairs while Rome burns.� \(Lewis and Kelman, 2010, p. 208\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 518.274 95.999 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(20)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.911 94.491 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 75.087 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As it is, regardless of prevailing realities, �DRR� has become the universal acronym to mean whatever interpretation is chosen )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 63.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(for it, no matter what the intentions were of its origins. The )] TJ ET
BT 279.321 63.182 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Global Assessment Report)] TJ ET
BT 395.278 63.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(UNISDR, 2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 468.958 64.689 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 473.777 63.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( will not change that, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 51.277 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(although by its content, DRR has now been made a shade more accurate. Nevertheless, the invidious processes continue to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 39.372 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(prevail from which ensue vulnerabilities and the origins of DRC, unrecognised and unaccepted by many, and being mostly )] TJ ET
Q
q
15.000 25.087 577.500 751.913 re W n
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 26.250 767.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(If someone with full knowledge of flood risk settles in a floodplain, thereby encouraging others to do so even though the others )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 755.571 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(do not have full knowledge of the flood risk, how �innocent� is that? If people make livelihood choices to live on the slopes of a )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 743.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(frequently erupting volcano, are we certain that social processes and power structures did not preclude other options? How do )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 731.762 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(we balance the vulnerabilities and risks of cultivating fertile, landslide-prone hillsides in comparison to land which is less prone )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 719.857 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to landslides but more prone to rainfall-related drought? More importantly, what social processes or underlying factors led to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 707.952 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(those two choices \(or outmigration\) as being the only options available?)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 688.548 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Many of the answers to these questions, and the separation of �bad� and �ugly�, could relate to who and which processes )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 676.643 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(provide the options available and who or which processes take the final decision within the bounded frame of only certain )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 664.738 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(options being available. A single paper cannot delve into that for the numerous realities of vulnerability presented here. For )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 652.833 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(discussion purposes, we separate �the bad� and �the ugly�, recognising that, at deeper levels of the case studies, they are likely )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 640.929 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to be heavily intertwined�and even inexorably linked to �the good�. As per the final example in the previous paragraph, the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 629.024 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(decision to farm landslide-prone hills can be a drought risk reduction strategy while the decision to farm drought-prone plains )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 617.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(can be a landslide risk reduction strategy. The good, the bad, and the ugly are inexorably linked�and it is not even clear that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 605.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�good� means the minimum risk feasible \(e.g. Kelman and Mather, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 339.449 606.722 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(15)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 349.087 605.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 568.612 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(The good � as far as it goes)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 548.658 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Internationally produced United Nations documents reflect the valid concerns of that organisation and of its member )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 536.753 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(governments. They also embody the characteristic disadvantage that governments do not welcome exposure of their own )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 524.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(shortcomings. How else could governments be expected to commit themselves to signing up to report content unless there are )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 512.943 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(no indictments, no fault-finding, no blame, and no negatives reflecting on themselves?)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 493.539 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Consequently, entire initiatives, such as the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, the HFA, and the Global Assessment )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 481.634 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reports, are perpetually required to trade on well-meaning innate optimism, positive drive, and honourable common good for )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 469.729 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the future of humankind. What such documents do not express, therefore, is that governments, societies, and communities, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 457.824 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(whether rural or urban, include the bad and the ugly as well as the good, the corrupt as well as the ethical, and the inert and the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 445.920 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(weak as well as the powerfully active.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 426.515 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Such processes, and these documents, reflect and are the product of an assumed �equality of the good� that cannot represent )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 414.610 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(or express society�s inequalities and injustices that are themselves a principal cause of vulnerability. In part expressed as )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 402.705 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�poverty�, causes of poverty are not always entirely recognised or considered � except that of disasters themselves. As this )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 390.801 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(paper demonstrates through the lens of vulnerability to disasters, poverty is not simply a static, immutable and inconvenient fact. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 378.896 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Instead, it is the by-product of actions and inactions across economic and governance sectors. That it may be rare for these )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 366.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(sectors to be represented within the DRR mandate does not make them irrelevant for DRR. Conversely, it becomes crucial for )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 355.086 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR issues to be represented, comprehended and implemented integrally within the management of each of those other )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 343.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(sectors, directly placing DRR work within and across other development activities.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 323.777 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(But even if that were achieved, another factor emerges: DRR appears to not always acknowledge that societies inevitably and )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 311.872 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(invariably include those with less admirable motives \(Cannon, 2007\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 319.940 313.379 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(16)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 329.577 311.872 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Greed and self-indulgence serving to exacerbate )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 299.967 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(inequality \(Dorling, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 134.621 301.475 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(17)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 144.259 299.967 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, and other people�s vulnerability, is an unfortunate reality that prevails beyond most concepts of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 288.063 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(governance, operating powerfully and pervasively )] TJ ET
BT 243.012 288.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(inter alia)] TJ ET
BT 279.857 288.063 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( contrary to the objectives of DRR at domestic, group, corporate and )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 276.158 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(institutional levels. Good governance applies to the rural as well as to the urban, to the rich as well as the poor. It cannot be )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 264.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(restricted to initiating or permitting favourable systems and procedures but has to prevent and inhibit other procedures that, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 252.348 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(whilst advantageous to the powerful few, result in widespread deprivation for the many.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 232.944 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Whilst exclusion of the negative is accepted practice for internationally produced documents, it will continue as necessary to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 221.039 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(acknowledge internationally investigative journalism \(Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 434.824 222.546 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(18)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 444.461 221.039 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, media exposures of biased )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 209.134 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(reportage, and socially conscientious revelatory �leaks�, in order to achieve the needed greater awareness of prevailing political )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 197.229 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(and social realities. These courageous sources serve usefully to temper fairy-tale fantasies as they take their place alongside )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 185.325 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the acceptably comfortable but complacent, internationally conceived, jointly contributed, and governmentally signed documents )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 173.420 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(� along with some guidelines and academic texts.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 154.015 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Disasters for vulnerable people are often the consequence of longer-term negative pasts created by others, against which )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 142.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(concepts of personal and community resilience have sometimes been powerless \(e.g. Hewitt, 1983, 1997; Lewis, 1999; Wisner )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 130.206 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(et al., 2004, 2012\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 104.845 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
BT 109.663 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(9)] TJ ET
BT 114.482 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 124.119 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(11)] TJ ET
BT 133.757 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(19)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 143.394 130.206 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. DRR needs to recognise these processes of �epidemiological� vulnerability now, so that disasters of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 118.301 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the future might realistically be reduced: �Disaster reduction must maintain temporal awareness of pasts and futures, as well as )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 106.396 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(of the present, so that as vulnerability processes come to be recognised, conditions and consequences are reduced. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 94.491 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Meanwhile, resilience fiddles on the re-arranged deckchairs while Rome burns.� \(Lewis and Kelman, 2010, p. 208\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 518.274 95.999 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(20)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.911 94.491 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 75.087 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As it is, regardless of prevailing realities, �DRR� has become the universal acronym to mean whatever interpretation is chosen )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 63.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(for it, no matter what the intentions were of its origins. The )] TJ ET
BT 279.321 63.182 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Global Assessment Report)] TJ ET
BT 395.278 63.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(UNISDR, 2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 468.958 64.689 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 473.777 63.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( will not change that, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 51.277 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(although by its content, DRR has now been made a shade more accurate. Nevertheless, the invidious processes continue to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 39.372 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(prevail from which ensue vulnerabilities and the origins of DRC, unrecognised and unaccepted by many, and being mostly )] TJ ET
Q
q
15.000 25.087 577.500 751.913 re W n
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 26.250 767.476 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(If someone with full knowledge of flood risk settles in a floodplain, thereby encouraging others to do so even though the others )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 755.571 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(do not have full knowledge of the flood risk, how �innocent� is that? If people make livelihood choices to live on the slopes of a )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 743.667 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(frequently erupting volcano, are we certain that social processes and power structures did not preclude other options? How do )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 731.762 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(we balance the vulnerabilities and risks of cultivating fertile, landslide-prone hillsides in comparison to land which is less prone )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 719.857 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to landslides but more prone to rainfall-related drought? More importantly, what social processes or underlying factors led to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 707.952 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(those two choices \(or outmigration\) as being the only options available?)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 688.548 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Many of the answers to these questions, and the separation of �bad� and �ugly�, could relate to who and which processes )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 676.643 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(provide the options available and who or which processes take the final decision within the bounded frame of only certain )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 664.738 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(options being available. A single paper cannot delve into that for the numerous realities of vulnerability presented here. For )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 652.833 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(discussion purposes, we separate �the bad� and �the ugly�, recognising that, at deeper levels of the case studies, they are likely )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 640.929 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to be heavily intertwined�and even inexorably linked to �the good�. As per the final example in the previous paragraph, the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 629.024 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(decision to farm landslide-prone hills can be a drought risk reduction strategy while the decision to farm drought-prone plains )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 617.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(can be a landslide risk reduction strategy. The good, the bad, and the ugly are inexorably linked�and it is not even clear that )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 605.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�good� means the minimum risk feasible \(e.g. Kelman and Mather, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 339.449 606.722 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(15)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 349.087 605.214 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 568.612 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(The good � as far as it goes)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 548.658 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Internationally produced United Nations documents reflect the valid concerns of that organisation and of its member )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 536.753 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(governments. They also embody the characteristic disadvantage that governments do not welcome exposure of their own )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 524.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(shortcomings. How else could governments be expected to commit themselves to signing up to report content unless there are )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 512.943 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(no indictments, no fault-finding, no blame, and no negatives reflecting on themselves?)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 493.539 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Consequently, entire initiatives, such as the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, the HFA, and the Global Assessment )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 481.634 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reports, are perpetually required to trade on well-meaning innate optimism, positive drive, and honourable common good for )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 469.729 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the future of humankind. What such documents do not express, therefore, is that governments, societies, and communities, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 457.824 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(whether rural or urban, include the bad and the ugly as well as the good, the corrupt as well as the ethical, and the inert and the )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 445.920 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(weak as well as the powerfully active.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 426.515 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Such processes, and these documents, reflect and are the product of an assumed �equality of the good� that cannot represent )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 414.610 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(or express society�s inequalities and injustices that are themselves a principal cause of vulnerability. In part expressed as )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 402.705 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(�poverty�, causes of poverty are not always entirely recognised or considered � except that of disasters themselves. As this )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 390.801 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(paper demonstrates through the lens of vulnerability to disasters, poverty is not simply a static, immutable and inconvenient fact. )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 378.896 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Instead, it is the by-product of actions and inactions across economic and governance sectors. That it may be rare for these )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 366.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(sectors to be represented within the DRR mandate does not make them irrelevant for DRR. Conversely, it becomes crucial for )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 355.086 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR issues to be represented, comprehended and implemented integrally within the management of each of those other )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 343.182 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(sectors, directly placing DRR work within and across other development activities.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 323.777 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(But even if that were achieved, another factor emerges: DRR appears to not always acknowledge that societies inevitably and )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 311.872 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(invariably include those with less admirable motives \(Cannon, 2007\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 319.940 313.379 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(16)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 329.577 311.872 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Greed and self-indulgence serving to exacerbate )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 299.967 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(inequality \(Dorling, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 134.621 301.475 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(17)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 144.259 299.967 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, and other people�s vulnerability, is an unfortunate reality that prevails beyond most concepts of )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 288.063 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(governance, operating powerfully and pervasively )] TJ ET
BT 243.012 288.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(inter alia)] TJ ET
BT 279.857 288.063 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( contrary to the objectives of DRR at domestic, group, corporate and )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 276.158 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(institutional levels. Good governance applies to the rural as well as to the urban, to the rich as well as the poor. It cannot be )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 264.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(restricted to initiating or permitting favourable systems and procedures but has to prevent and inhibit other procedures that, )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 252.348 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(whilst advantageous to the powerful few, result in widespread deprivation for the many.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 232.944 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Whilst exclusion of the negative is accepted practice for internationally produced documents, it will continue as necessary to )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 221.039 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(acknowledge internationally investigative journalism \(Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 434.824 222.546 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(18)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 444.461 221.039 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, media exposures of biased )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 209.134 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(reportage, and socially conscientious revelatory �leaks�, in order to achieve the needed greater awareness of prevailing political )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 197.229 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(and social realities. These courageous sources serve usefully to temper fairy-tale fantasies as they take their place alongside )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 185.325 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(the acceptably comfortable but complacent, internationally conceived, jointly contributed, and governmentally signed documents )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 173.420 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(� along with some guidelines and academic texts.)] TJ ET
BT 26.250 154.015 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Disasters for vulnerable people are often the consequence of longer-term negative pasts created by others, against which )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 142.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(concepts of personal and community resilience have sometimes been powerless \(e.g. Hewitt, 1983, 1997; Lewis, 1999; Wisner )] TJ ET
BT 26.250 130.206 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(et al., 2004, 2012\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 104.845 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(8)] TJ ET
BT 109.663 131.713 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(9)] TJ ET
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BT 130.057 700.522 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(11)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 611.288 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 599.072 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Pierce, 2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 525.707 599.521 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(25)] TJ ET
26.625 587.775 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 587.775 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 587.775 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 587.775 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 571.894 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 571.894 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 577.920 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2. Discrimination: bad.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 571.894 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Spain)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 571.894 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 571.894 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Sub-standard living conditions for migrants )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 554.408 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(preventing them from enacting DRR.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 571.894 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 559.678 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lawrence, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 540.342 560.127 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(26)] TJ ET
26.625 548.381 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(United Kingdom)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 548.381 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 548.381 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Marginalised citizenship which exposes those )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 530.895 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(affected to hazards.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 548.381 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Hogan and Marandola, )] TJ ET
BT 470.971 528.534 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 492.655 528.983 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(27)] TJ ET
26.625 521.918 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(USA)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 521.918 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 521.918 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Disadvantaged living in physically vulnerable areas, )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 504.432 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(exposed by Hurricane Katrina.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 521.918 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 509.702 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Laska et al., 2006)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 547.937 510.151 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(28)] TJ ET
26.625 498.406 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Tonga)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 498.406 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 498.406 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Financial judgements denied the social need for )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 480.919 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(shelter, leaving the poorest without post-disaster )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 473.288 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(housing and thus made more vulnerable, serving )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 465.657 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(DRC.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 498.406 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
580.125 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 486.190 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 522.997 486.639 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(29)] TJ ET
26.625 459.631 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Dominican Republic)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 459.631 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1982)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 459.631 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Exclusion from arable land increasing vulnerability to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 442.144 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(famine.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 459.631 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 447.415 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, 1982)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.336 447.864 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(30)] TJ ET
26.625 436.118 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 436.118 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1960s onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 436.118 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Townships as ghettos of discrimination, which places )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 418.632 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(them in hazardous locations and which inhibits local )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 411.000 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 436.118 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 423.902 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 543.043 424.351 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(31)] TJ ET
26.625 404.974 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 404.974 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 404.974 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 404.974 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 373.831 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 373.831 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 395.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(3. Displacement: bad.In all these cases, moving people from their land and communities increased their vulnerability by )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 387.488 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(resettling them in unfamiliar places without adequate support for DRR in the new location, especially where the people )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 379.857 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(experienced unusual for to them.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 373.831 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil and Guyana)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 373.831 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 373.831 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$17 billion Amazon dam project displaces tribes.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 373.831 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reuters AlertNet, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 354.433 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(32)] TJ ET
26.625 347.367 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Philippines)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 347.367 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2001)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 347.367 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One dam displaced 61,700 people.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 347.367 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 335.152 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Heijmans, 2001)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 538.704 335.601 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
26.625 328.535 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 328.535 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1959-1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 328.535 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(10 million people displaced by water projects.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 328.535 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 316.320 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, 1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 530.046 316.769 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(33)] TJ ET
26.625 309.703 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 309.703 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1956-1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 309.703 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(18.5 million people displaced by dams and mines.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 309.703 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 297.488 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, 1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 530.046 297.937 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(33)] TJ ET
26.625 290.871 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 290.871 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 290.871 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 290.871 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 274.990 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 274.990 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 281.016 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(IMPOVERISHMENT)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 274.990 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 274.990 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 274.990 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 274.990 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 259.109 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 259.109 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 265.135 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(4. Self-seeking expenditure: ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 259.109 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 259.109 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2009-2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 259.109 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Doubling of project costs implies misuse of funds )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 241.623 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(which could have been used for DRR or sustainability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 233.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(projects.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 259.109 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 246.893 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Donnelly, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 536.003 247.342 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
26.625 227.965 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Italy)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 227.965 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1945 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 227.965 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Less infrastructure in the south for more money spent.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 227.965 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden and Picci, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 208.567 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(35)] TJ ET
26.625 201.502 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 201.502 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 201.502 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 201.502 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 185.621 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 185.621 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 191.647 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(5. Denial of access to resources: bad and ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 185.621 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 185.621 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1998)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 185.621 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Skewed access to productive land, affecting ability to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 168.134 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(reduce vulnerability through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 185.621 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 173.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mustafa, 1998)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 532.757 173.854 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(36)] TJ ET
26.625 162.108 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tuvalu)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 162.108 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1941-1945)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 162.108 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Long-term depletion of crops due to World War 2 )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 144.622 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(airfields, affecting ability to reduce vulnerability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 136.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 162.108 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 149.892 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Telavi, 1983)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 524.079 150.341 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
26.625 130.964 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Martinique)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 130.964 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1635 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 130.964 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Unequal distribution of landholdings, affecting ability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 113.478 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to reduce vulnerability through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 130.964 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
580.125 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 118.749 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, 1981)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.336 119.198 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(38)] TJ ET
26.625 107.452 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 107.452 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 107.452 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 107.452 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 76.308 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 76.308 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 97.597 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(6. Corruption: bad.In all these cases, the money could have been used for DRR or vulnerability reduction measures, )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 89.966 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(especially in wider contexts of supporting local livelihoods and aiming for sustainable communities. Where noted, money lost )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 82.334 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(through corruption could have been used to increase the hazard resistance of infrastructure.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 76.308 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 66.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bangladesh)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 76.308 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 76.308 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Anti-graft official accepted US$14,000 bribe.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 76.308 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(AFP, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(39)] TJ ET
26.625 60.427 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Indonesia)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 60.427 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 60.427 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tax official took bribes of millions of US$ in gold.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 60.427 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Deutsch, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(40)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Local misuse of development funds in 47 counties.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Daily Nation, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(41)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bribes and theft are estimated at 8% of government spending.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pei, 2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Turkey)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1999)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Earthquake damage from corrupt construction control.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 2008a)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(43)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 791.625 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 791.625 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 791.625 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(7. Siphoning of public money: ugly.In all these cases, the money could have been used for DRR or vulnerability reduction measures, especially in wider contexts of supporting local livelihoods and aiming for sustainable communities.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Gabon)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$36 million embezzled.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ryan, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(44)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(President siphoned US$9 billion overseas.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hirsch, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(45)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(President controls revenues from state industries.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harding, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(46)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2008)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The country�s illegal economy represents 50% of GDP.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kar, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(47)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2001-2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Government money was paid to a fictitious firm for contracts. Some of that was paid back.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Githongo, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(48)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mexico)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2000-2009)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit financial outflows of US$46.24 billion.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI, 2011a)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Angola)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1993-2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$4.68 billion lost between 1993 and 2002.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shaxson, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Italy)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1945 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Massive siphoning of development funding.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden and Picci, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(35)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 1: Environmental degradation)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Development affecting the environment may be initiated, perpetrated or permitted that places people at risk when they occupy that development. The risks may arise from environmental degradation or environmental modification that creates or augments hazards.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bidwai \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( describes India�s growth as having two negative sides: �persistent poverty, social bondage and economic servitude� and �sleaze and collusive business-politics relations that mock transparency, accountability, democratic policy-making and the public interest.� He notes that �what counts is privileged access to natural resources and the national commons, most critically land, which is at the core of the government�s discretionary powers�. Amongst other examples are �mining and metallurgical projects that blatantly violate environmental regulations; corporate land grabs in the guise of export promotion zones; the razing of virgin tropical rainforest to make way for opulent housing�. These actions have a tendency of exacerbating, even creating, flood, landslide, and drought hazards.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In the floods of 2010, millions of people were affected by torrential monsoon rains and consequent floods. By August, entire villages had been washed away, 1,600 people had died, 2 million had been made homeless, and dissent was leading to political instability \(Shah, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(51)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. It was reported that �the timber mafia, which has a particularly strong hold on the areas now affected by flooding [is] one of the most powerful and ruthless organisations within Pakistan�engages in illegal logging, which is estimated to be worth billions of rupees each year� \(Shamsie, 2010, online; see also Ali et al., 2006\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(52)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. In addition to deforestation contributing to flooding, landslides, and soil erosion, illegally felled trees hidden in ravines were dislodged by floodwaters and destroyed bridges essential for access to flooded areas. Dams and retaining walls intended for flood control were possibly weakened as well which might have contributed to some of the inundation, although detailed investigations have not been carried out \(Shamsie, 2010; Sudmeier-Rieux, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(53)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 2: Discrimination)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ethnic, religious, gender or \(dis\)ability-based discrimination, for example, may lead to deprivation, victimisation, or the forced adoption of hazard-prone habitation. Being discriminated against also reduces the options available for individuals and communities to adopt DRR measures.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Nepal)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Nripal \(2008, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(54)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( writes:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In my studies of a few villages of Nepal, I found that vulnerability is a political issue. Culture is a response to politics. Before we talk about preparedness or coping mechanisms that cultures have adopted in different temporal and spatial settings� it is necessary to address the root causes of vulnerabilities�In the Dhadhing district of Nepal, ethnic groups like Chepangs live in very steep lands�studies have shown that they are very adaptive to those settings. But it is the policies of institutionalized discrimination�over about eight hundred years, that has forced them to live in steep slopes. They have adapted well to those harsh conditions� but that does not mean they are completely safe. Food insecurity and poverty still haunt them and they are the first victims of hazards like landslides. They are living in the edge of vulnerability, not because of their cultural inclination but because of institutionalized discrimination against them.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudmeier-Rieux et al. \(2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(55)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( confirmed exactly this situation by comparing two villages in Nepal with landslide risk that is comparable, but with differing livelihoods and economic opportunities.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sectors of underdevelopment, such as South African townships, are ghettos of discrimination and deprivation and are dynamos of concentrated vulnerability. Most are overcrowded and prone to disease, fire, storms and flooding while the inhabitants experience forced removal and displacement without alternative accommodation.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat \(2010, pp. 209-210\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(31)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( states:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In Durban, Cape Town )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(and Johannesburg, recurring social catastrophes \(especially fires and floods devastating entire communities\) are viewed by officials as �natural disasters� or faults caused by their low-income victims. Yet, they are clearly a product of asymmetric public policy choices that favour the wealthy at the expense of the poor. The poor are most exposed and vulnerable to disasters and disease�Horrific fires in Alexandra, Johannesburg, are a product of informal settlement layout, overcrowding, highly combustible building materials and inadequate strategies for fire prevention� the most effective prevention of such fires would be provision of affordable electric power to replace the fire hazard of paraffin lamps and candles.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 3: Displacement)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Removal of habitation and people to make land available for other purposes, without compensation or alternative shelter, deprives families of accustomed livelihoods and exacerbates their vulnerability to natural hazards. Forced evictions are reported by Amnesty International \(2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(56)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( in places such as Kenya, Nigeria, Paraguay, Serbia and Zimbabwe. When deprived of familiar environments without support for learning about one�s new location, already vulnerable people can be subject to hazards with which they are unfamiliar.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One major cause of displacement is the construction of dams for hydro-electricity, with indigenous people particularly having their livelihoods devastated along with being threatened by extinction \(Survival International, 2010; World Commission on Dams, 2000\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(57)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(58)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Examples include Ethiopia, Kenya, Malaysia, Peru, and China. In such cases, vulnerability is increased because the new location is unfamiliar, traditional livelihoods and coping mechanisms have been disrupted and adequate support for long-term DRR is usually not available. These consequences result in the case studies below as well.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil and Guyana)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil is to construct a series of dams on the River Madeira, one of which would be the third largest in the world, despite protests since the 1980s by Kayap� Indians and other tribes. More large dams are planned for northern Brazil and southern Guyana, including the Upper Mazaruni dam which was stopped after protests, but is likely to be revived \(Survival International, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(57)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. In January 2011, Brazil�s environment agency approved the commencement of a 240-hectare site clearance project for the Belo Monte dam in the Amazon, with a budget of US$17 billion and displacing numerous native tribes \(Reuters AlertNet, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(32)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Philippines)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Locally perceived as more disastrous than natural hazards, are governmental �development� projects for dams, irrigation, mining operations, plantations and recreation areas, all requiring conversion of prime agricultural land to industrial and commercial use \(see also Gaillard et al., 2007\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(59)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Local communities are often not consulted, but are displaced, losing their rights, livelihoods, and lands. Such projects, having immediate negative effects on local poor communities and known as �development aggression� \(Heijmans, 2001,p. 5\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, are considered as human-made disasters more difficult to cope with than with those of a typhoon. Typhoons are said to destroy crops, houses and infrastructure, but not to undermine the basis of people�s means of survival. Displacement deprives people of their land, the most crucial resource to sustain their livelihood. Government or private compensation is far below the amount needed to rebuild a livelihood elsewhere, and land is not made available \(Heijmans, 2001\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Epitomising the state of impoverishment, Washington DC based Global Financial Integrity issued two reports in the early months of 2011. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2000-2009)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(GFI, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( describes how much of the colossal amounts of money secreted offshore has resulted from the siphoning of funds from developing countries, further impoverishing those countries and social conditions within them, thereby perpetuating and augmenting vulnerability. An additional cause of globally continuing poverty is described in the second report, )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Transnational Crime in the Developing World)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(GFI, 2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(60)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, which notes a US$650 billion �global illicit flow of goods, guns, people, and natural resources� \(p. v\) that functions easily in conditions of underdevelopment, poor governance, and fragile states, conditions that its activities perpetuate and that preclude effective and adequately resourced DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 4: Self-seeking expenditure of public money)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Self-seeking expenditure manipulates funds, that otherwise could be applied to development, such as DRR work. Instead, these funds are put towards projects that benefit the manipulator or development expenditure is used as a vehicle for personal gain. Either process skews expenditure that could otherwise be applied towards raising the quality of life and reducing vulnerability for wider sectors of society or communities at large.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(While no guarantee exists that unsiphoned funds would be used for DRR, the fundamental principle is that public money ought to be used for public good. When that does not happen, self-seeking expenditure is epitomised. By denying the public the benefits from the expenditure of public money, vulnerability is necessarily created. Cases of abuse of entrusted power for personal gain leading to increased community vulnerability are given below as corruption and siphoning of public funds.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Police are an inherent part of community resilience and are involved in some DRR activities, as well as in post-disaster response. Where police abuse the system or fail in their duties, vulnerability is augmented, partly because the police are not playing their expected role and partly because the populace will not trust the police to assist.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(During 2009 and 2010, three new police stations were constructed at Inanda, Ezakheni and Hebron. Inanda Police Station took six years to build, during which costs soared from a budgeted ZAR15.9 million to an actual cost of ZAR42.0 million. Ezakheni Police Station had an estimated cost of ZAR10.6 million that grew to an actual cost of ZAR23.9 million. Hebron Police Station began construction in June 2006 and was not complete at September 2010 when its budgeted cost of ZAR14.7 million had by then risen to ZAR18.6 million and was still increasing. According to Donnelly \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, �The average cost of consultants was 18% of a project�s budget, but in some projects it was as high as 25%�. Extended completion times and higher overall payments suggest contractor and consultant complicity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Overall, for these three police stations at the time of reporting by Donnelly \(2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, ZAR84.5 million of public money had been spent on three contracts budgeted at a total of ZAR41.2 million � an overall expenditure of more than twice the budgeted cost. That misuse of public money draws resources directly away from DRR, and other community development concerns, not just through moving money away from the public good but also through the police apparently being complicit in that process. In this case of trade mispricing, six police stations, or their developmental equivalent, could have been provided for the ultimate actual cost of three \(Lewis, 2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(61)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. That would have contributed to reducing community vulnerability through policing while instilling trust in the police as part of building a resilient community.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Vietnam)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Climate change influences resilience to natural hazards, with climate change adaptation being part of DRR. In June 2012, three of four climate change research projects in Vietnam funded by the Danish International Development Agency \(DANIDA\),were stopped by the Danish Embassy due to fraudulent expenditure by Vietnamese participants. Out of the approximately US$3.45 million in aid for the projects, US$2.45 million had been distributed when US$550,000 was found to have been misused \(Talk Vietnam, 2012\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(62)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The projects comprised assessments of climate change impacts on land use and livelihoods, socio-economic development, estuarine ecosystems and the effects upon rice production of submergence and salinity. All these activities are part of DRR and link to social improvement, well-being and poverty reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 5: Denial of access to resources)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Some people�s actions, inadvertent or deliberate, have caused others to be, or to become, deprived of resources that either belonged to them or that were commonly available. Such actions may have been perpetrated in history, but their long-lasting consequences continue to be a part of present-day conditions, having imposed vulnerability, and may have come to be regarded as permanent, normal and acceptable.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Tuvalu)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(During World War 2 on Funafuti, the main island in what was then the Ellice Islands, and is now Tuvalu \(Telavi, 1983, p. 142\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In the construction of the airfield a large portion of the land formerly used for growing )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(pulaka)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( and )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(taro)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( was covered up. The local people were later compensated yet they suffered an enduring loss. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pulaka)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( is no longer a staple food, although during the war it did not matter. The American occupation brought them more food � as well as cigarettes, soap and kerosene � more than they had ever had before. Many still think of that as the best time of their lives.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(For the outer island of Nanumea \(Telavi, 1983, p. 143\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(most damage done on the island was done by its defenders. The airfield took up one sixth of the land area, and to make it the Americans destroyed nearly half of the coconut trees, 22,000 out of 54,000. Moreover, efforts to replant that land have not been very successful. The coral is packed too hard for the trees to grow properly)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reliable local food is reduced, decreasing self-sufficiency and augmenting vulnerability.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 6: Corruption)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The link between corruption and disasters is more pervasively invidious than its obvious after-the-fact effect manifesting in, for example, earthquake damage \(Ambraseys and Bilham, 2011; Lewis, 2008a; Chien, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(43)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(63)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(64)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. At one time, corruption was typically condoned as �usefully functional� or as grease for the wheels of bureaucracy, and more often ignored than investigated. That has been the case even though it deprives the poorest of what little money they have � by which poverty is exacerbated and, at higher social levels, it may keep undeserving elites in power \(Hoogvelt, 1976\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(65)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Now, it is recognised that the hierarchical greed within corruption, its spread and extent, and its scale, consequently distorts the economy, increasing costs of goods and services. As Johnston \(2009, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(66)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( notes, �The links between corruption and poverty affect both individuals and businesses, and they run in both directions: poverty invites corruption, while corruption deepens poverty.�)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The World Bank�s Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative concludes for developing countries that �The cross-border flow of the global proceeds from criminal activities, corruption, and tax evasion is estimated at between $1 trillion and $1.6 trillion per year� \(UN and World Bank, 2007, p. 1\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(67)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Using those figures, Baker et al. \(2008: online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(68)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( comments:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(This dwarfs foreign aid, which totalled about $50 billion a year through the 1990s and is about $100 billion today. So we have $50-100 billion of aid flowing into poor countries, and $500�800 billion of dirty money flowing out. In other words, for every dollar Western governments have been handing out across the top of the table, crooked Western banks, businesses and middlemen of various descriptions have been taking back up to ten dollars of illicit proceeds under the table)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Foreign aid includes DRR and other vulnerability reduction measures. If the �dirty money� were invested in the communities where the money came from, perhaps there would be no need for foreign aid to initiate and support DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China�s corruption costs have been estimated as 8% of spending from 1996-2005 contributing �to China�s massive environmental degradation, deterioration in social services, and the rising costs of housing, health care, and education� \(Pei, 2007, p. 5\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(��Even a relatively low-level official can amass an illicit fortune in tens of millions of yuan� \(Pei, 2007, p. 2\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The destruction of so many schools in the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, which killed 75,000 people including 900 children in one school, was strongly suspected to have resulted from corruption in construction \(Lewis, 2008b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(69)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The Chinese government states that it is battling corruption; for instance, �Chinese prosecutors investigated more than 240,000 embezzlement, bribery and other cases involving official corruption from 2003 to 2009�\(Forsythe, 2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(70)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Nonetheless, �corruption remains rife and is one of the most potent sources of public anger� \(Branigan, 2011, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(71)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 7: Siphoning of public money)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The director of Global Financial Integrity \(GFI\), Raymond Baker, has described the development of offshore financial havens as �the ugliest chapter in global economic affairs since slavery� \(Shaxson, 2011, p. 158\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Diversion and siphoning of public money into private bank accounts, wherever they are held, is an aspect of corruption \(described above\), drawing money away from potential DRR activities. Inclusive of development funding, money is stolen and sent to private, offshore tax havens before it can be spent for other purposes, which could have included the public good such as for vulnerability reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The fine distinction made here between corruption and the siphoning of public money is between illicit expenditure and direct theft. Both are practiced for private gain. As a driver of vulnerability at national levels, the siphoning of public money has no rival to the enormity of geographical extent and size of the sums involved.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(According to Dorling \(2010: 101\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(17)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, there is a:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(�trillion-dollar-a-year flow of illicit funds to rich nations using webs of financial trusts, nominee bank accounts, numerous methods to avoid tax, and simple mispricing�Traditional bribery and corruption within poor countries accounts for only 3% of this sum. Despite this, when corruption is considered it is almost always that kind of corruption and not the other 97%, the corruption of very rich Western bankers and businessmen \(and a handful of businesswomen\)�orchestrated from [London], from New York, and from a plethora of well-connected tax havens.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Approximately 50% of banking assets and 33% of foreign investment by multinational corporations are routed offshore through small island financial centres, estimated by the IMF as amounting overall to US$18 trillion, equivalent to one third of the world�s GDP \(Shaxson, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Providing secrecy, an escape from financial regulation and taxation elsewhere, not only small islands are involved. The United Kingdom has been identified by the IMF as an offshore jurisdiction \(Shaxson, 2011; OECD, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(72)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( with its government encouraging that status and further covert activity \(Murphy, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(73)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit outflows mean that governments have less money to spend on development and sustainability activities \(Collier, 2008; Colvin, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(74)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(75)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. For example, before it could be spent on infrastructure and general construction, millions of dollars of international aid have been sent from some African countries to private external bank accounts, often in the countries of the origin of the aid \(Baker et al., 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(68)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Ndung�u \(2007, p. 3\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(76)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( asks about Africa:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How many Harvards could be established in this continent to create the critical mass of world-class engineers and scientists, and intellectual leaders needed to advance Africa�s development, expand industrial output and enhance employment creation in the era of knowledge from the half a trillion US dollars stored by a handful of Africans in save [sic] havens?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Meanwhile, GFI \(2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( reports crime, corruption and trade mispricing�inclusive of kickbacks, bribes, embezzlement and other forms of official corruption�as leading to illicit outflows from developing countries of over US$1 trillion a year. Amongst countries with the highest cumulative illicit financial outflows between 2000 and 2008 were China at US$2.18 trillion, Russia at US$427 billion, Mexico at US$416 billon, Malaysia at US$291 billion, Venezuela at US$157 billion and Nigeria at US$130 billion \(GFI, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Approximately US$854 billion is a conservative estimate of total illicit financial outflows from Africa, as it could possibly be �as high as US$1.8 trillion� \(Shaxson, 2011, p. 157\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndikumana and Boyce \(2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( examined capital sent from 40 African countries between 1970 and 2004. They conclude that sub-Saharan Africa is a ��net creditor� to the rest of the world� \(p. 6\) because �Real capital flight over the 35-year period amounted to about $420 billion \(in 2004 dollars\) for the 40 countries as a whole� \(p. 6\). That amounts to over double these countries� combined external debt \(Ndikumana and Boyce, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The difference between the assets and the liabilities is that �private external assets belong to a narrow, relatively wealthy stratum of its population, while public external debts are borne by the people through their governments� \(Ndikumana and Boyce, 2008, pp. 27-28; see also Ndikumana and Boyce, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(78)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(From 48 Least Developed Countries between 1990 and 2008, illicit flows�mainly to developed country banks and offshore financial centres�represented �a net resource transfer of about US$197 billion into the rest of the world \(mainly developed countries\)� \(UNDP, 2011, p. 14\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(79)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. If such funds were applied appropriately internally, then development, poverty alleviation, and DRR could receive significant boosts through domestic initiatives.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One estimate asserts that �rich Indians have spirited abroad the equivalent of half of India�s GDP over six decades� \(Bidwai, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Another states that the total illegal outflows of cash from India�s independence in 1948 until 2008 would add up to at least US$462 billion with compound interest \(Kar, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(47)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. These sums may have been from private income sent overseas to avoid Indian taxation or siphoned from public funds. Either way, public money in India is being severely depleted by this activity. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In January 2011, after an intervention from India�s Supreme Court regarding illicit flows ending up in bank accounts overseas, the Indian government took steps to try to curtail the problem, citing that they had detected tax evasion worth US$3.3 billion over the previous 18 months \(Pasricha, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(80)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( .)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In August 2007, Rice \(2007, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(81)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( reported that \(see also Githongo, 2005\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(48)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The breathtaking extent of corruption perpetrated by the family of the former Kenyan leader Daniel Arap Moi was exposed�in a secret report that laid bare a web of shell companies, secret trusts and frontmen that his entourage used to funnel hundreds of millions of pounds into nearly 30 countries including Britain. The 110-page report�alleges that relatives and associates of Mr Moi siphoned off more than �1bn of government money�The assets accumulated included multimillion pound properties in London, New York and South Africa, as well as a 10,000-hectare ranch in Australia and bank accounts containing hundreds of millions of pounds. The report, commissioned by the Kenyan government, was submitted in 2004, but never acted upon.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(A report by the US ambassador to Tajikistan alleges that although the country experiences many disasters and is surrounded by difficult neighbours, the problems witnessed emerge internally. In particular, Tajikistan�s president, Emomali Rahmon \(Harding, 2010, online\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(46)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(runs the ex-Soviet republic�s economy for his own personal profit: �From the president down to the policeman on the street, government is characterized by cronyism and corruption.��Tajikistan�s sole industrial exports are aluminium and hydroelectricity. But most of the revenues from the �technically state-owned Tajik Aluminium Company \(Talco\) end up in a secretive offshore company controlled by the president�The state budget sees little of the income�.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan has high disaster vulnerability and needs DRR, but funds that could be available disappear due to the leader�s corruption.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(Integrating DRR to avoid DRC)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Why so many underdeveloped countries remain underdeveloped, or why the extent and levels of poverty and vulnerability prevail, are questions that cannot be answered without considering the colossal sums that accrue in private offshore bank accounts. Corruption is cited as an impediment to development \(Collier, 2008, p. 66\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(74)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and �the biggest threat to developing economies� \(Colvin, 2011, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(75)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. These comments equally apply to the other behaviours presented above. To consider DRR should entail questioning these causes of persistent poverty and persistent vulnerability, in turn being the prime cause of disaster risk.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Notwithstanding similar recommendations made years earlier \(e.g. Hamza and Zetter, 1998; Lewis, 1999\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(82)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, recommendation 7.5 of the Global Assessment Report \(UNISDR, 2009\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( encouragingly expresses that �a set of governance arrangements is needed for disaster risk reduction, poverty reduction and climate change adaptation, which is capable of ensuring that risk considerations are factored into all development investments� \(p. 181\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(That, as far as it goes, is how it should be. The evidence cited in this paper indicates that much more is at stake. As well as development, there is contra-development. Restriction of UNISDR�s \(2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( recommendation 7.5 to only the three named sectors, and the suggestion that �development of a single governance framework for risk reduction would seem to offer opportunities for more effective policy implementation and for avoiding duplication and lack of coordination� \(p. 181\), indicate an approach too narrow for sufficient DRR when caused by the behaviours exemplified above.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP \(2010, p. 1\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( links vulnerability and disasters with governance:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Principles of good governance include broad participation, transparency, accountability, efficiency and responsiveness. All are as important for DRR as they are for development at large. A central criterion of good governance � namely, the principle of ensuring that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decisions about the allocation of resources affecting them � is essential for effective DRR and sustainable disaster recovery.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP \(2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( speaks to democratically elected governments as the implied norm and, as with the UNISDR reports, assumes an epitome of the good. Without acknowledging the reality of the bad and the ugly�that is, of mal-governance, greed, and incompetence amongst others�this document also paints over the cracks in its fa�ade. Why is it that �Many disaster-prone countries have not embraced mainstreaming DRR concerns into development practices as an underlying principle� \(UNDP, 2010, p. 2\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(? If it is shortages of money or political will, then the motives behind these superficial excuses have been amply demonstrated in this paper.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Documents produced by the United Nations are not the only sources of myopic visions of reality. Some academic documents also fail to go far enough. As one example, a paper jointly produced by 16 authors \(Wisner et al., 2011\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(84)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, searches for incentives to achieve political will for the successful implementation of DRR. Corrupt practises offer incentives of personal profit of a magnitude far outweighing any, at a personal level, that might be achieved by DRR � and require less work for their installation. The paper makes limited active mention of the scale of corruption in all of its forms or of details regarding other illicit depletions of funds.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Perhaps the greatest failing of top-down institutionalised DRR is that it has been, and continues to be, separated from the reality of its contexts, whereas it is those contexts that actively contribute to the causes of disasters. By separating DRR from other separated sectors of government, the causes of people�s vulnerability to disasters must prevail \(Lewis, 1999, pp. 5, 133, 134\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The pervasive conditions of vulnerability cannot be allocated as the responsibility of one desk or department; they are the prerogative of all desks and departments for all kinds of business and activity, both policy and practice�Institutional and organisational separation is the greatest single impediment to the integration of development and disaster reduction�Vulnerability has to be reduced by strategic processes within development; not by the ad hoc application of services that commence only after disaster has occurred, or with the identification of, and attendance to, already �vulnerable groups�.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Since these words were written, along with much similar discourse before and after, disasters of colossal magnitude have continued to tax disaster practitioners in their post-event focus whilst vulnerability creation has proceeded apace. The task for DRR is to adopt a strategy inclusive of vulnerability and its causative processes. Those processes exemplified in this paper should be made targets for primary attention, not only by development aid but also by curtailing financial outflows \(Baker, 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(85)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Psychological issues, prevailing in any government�s task of assessing risk for others \(Lewis et al., 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(86)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( , may have to be overcome. How to evaluate the science and to respond to it in parallel with political and economic priorities presents all governments with similar difficulties. Accepting that disasters happen, as disasters always have, is politically easier than professing to be able to prevent them and running the risk of backlash due to carrying the blame for failure.How much is the interpretation of science influenced by what is considered to be acceptable?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How much is science willing to rock the boat of governments? How much, also, are politicians of questionable ethics likely to want to change their expectations of positions of personal power?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Current focus on climate change adaptation, often at the expense of other DRR work, perhaps provides an opportunity to put the principles into practice to achieve ethical management. As massive amounts of money are directed towards climate change adaptation, irrespective of other DRR concerns, disciplined governance is required to ensure that funds are used in their entirety for the purpose for which they have been disbursed. The capital being \(mis\)appropriated by climate change work also includes intellectual capital, in terms of climate change knowledge focusing on their own internal knowledge-generating processes, and re-inventing what is known already, rather than embracing and building on wider sectors and learning from what other fields have long established.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR, too, should not be seeking to isolate itself. Moving beyond its presently perceived remit from the institutionalised perspective, DRR should be informed about, and prepared to deal with, all topics that have a bearing upon vulnerability. Otherwise, DRR will not succeed \(Lewis, 2011a, p. 255\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(87)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Corruption acts as an engine of poverty and vulnerability� in poorer countries, where along with weak governance institutions there is often endemic corruption�Where corruption heightens community vulnerability, it exacerbates the need for adaptation measures. In regions plagued by weak governance, adaptation responses themselves may be particularly prone to corruption.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(These interactions are shown in practice, when examining topics that are not always considered in DRR processes. For example, DRR should consider conflict, due to the inherent links between disaster risk and different levels of conflict. Corruption interacts with rebellion in complex ways, but can certainly feed grievances that lead to revolutions \(Le Billon, 2003\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(88)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Consequently, DRR must deal with corruption, conflict and their interactions.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As an example of interactions amongst numerous topics, a survey in Nairobi, Kenya \(Shisanya and Kyayesi, 2007\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(89)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, found that respondents, in general, tended to be less concerned about flooding, El-Ni�o rainfall and �global warming� than about corruption, unemployment, crime, street children, garbage, transport and poverty. For DRR-related matters, pollution of the Nairobi River and HIV/AIDS \(along with perceived immorality/promiscuity\) did feature prominently. For some, to engage in DRR means engaging in topics concerning them immediately in tandem with demonstrating the links amongst those topics. That will link day-to-day known interests with longer term, more diffuse interests.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The prominence, but not exclusivity, of corruption is particularly notable. Bello et al. \(2005\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(90)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, use the example of the Philippines to explain that the country�s problems and the resulting vulnerabilities would still exist even without corruption \(p. 244\):)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(While corruption definitely needs to be condemned, it is not the reason behind the country�s stagnation. A more adequate explanation lies in the state being subjugated by a succession of ruling elite factions to serve narrow interests instead of the larger goals of sustainable development and social justice.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Arguably, the second sentence perfectly defines a usual form of �corruption�. Rather than quibbling over definitions \(see also the earlier discussion under �Impoverishment 7: Siphoning of public money�\), Bello et al.�s \(2005\)90 point is well taken in exemplifying Table 1�s other three categories under �impoverishment�. DRR can happen despite corruption and can fail in corruption�s absence, but that does not mean that DRR and corruption are separable�as amply illustrated, for example, by the links between illegal logging and corruption \(Goncalves et al., 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(91)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( which, as demonstrated above for Pakistan then augments vulnerability.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Now that the G20 are committed to addressing illicit financial flows and have made explicit links between poverty and tax haven secrecy \(GFI, 2011c\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(92)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, it is clear that DRR has for too long institutionally and conceptually separated itself from its social, economic and environmental contexts. DRR needs to integrate, not separate. Closer integration at global and international levels would hopefully encourage emulation at local levels. Sulston \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(93)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( offers ways of thinking of which DRR should take note:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(We certainly can survive but we can only do it by thinking in a rather larger and more collective way�The natural sciences will need to work in conjunction with the social sciences and governance if we are to ensure we will address challenges in an effective way. The challenges lie not so much in the natural sciences but in the social sciences and governance.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(Can bad and ugly become good?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Taking on these recommendations and better integrating DRR with other process does not in itself guarantee a disaster-free world�although DRR in itself has never aimed to guarantee a disaster-free world. Risks will always exist and decision-makers, necessarily, must always balance varying residual risks. It is important to acknowledge those residual risks, especially to determine if disasters could nonetheless be avoided through targeted interventions that do not, in turn, cause further risk-related \(or other\) problems.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(What does this mean practically to achieve DRR in the face of DRC? Could a conceptual model be developed to guide vulnerable people and communities, along with higher-scale authorities and influences, to recognise, acknowledge and manage residual risks that remain after DRR has been integrated as much as feasible? Could such a conceptual model map out what needs to be done beyond fighting corruption or contra-development?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(To a large degree, these conceptual models have long existed \(e.g. Lewis, 1984; O�Keefe et al., 1976\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(7)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(21)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and continue today to be reiterated, refined and interpreted from different angles \(e.g. Lewis et al., 2011; Wisner et al., 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(19)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(86)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. They frequently converge on the long-term, fundamental topics exemplified in this paper, especially with regards to changing culture and reallocating existing funds from processes that impede development�recognising endangerment and impoverishment as active, basic drivers of vulnerability and disaster risk.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The practice from these conceptual discussions appears through examples of successful DRR and development. Certainly, DRR being established and advancing is an overall �good�, but in many instances that has happened largely regardless of vulnerability. Similarly, recognising and admitting some of the drivers of vulnerability is also a �good�. But recognition, however important, is only the first step. Massively �bad� and �ugly� drivers persist in practice as a pernicious and prevailing reality, triggered by negative aspects of human behaviour. If DRR is being accepted as or aimed to be a �culture�, �contra-culture� exists as does �contra-development�. At the moment, the contra-culture dominates, as shown by this paper�s examples.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ways of working for DRR are required so that internationally conceived and jointly contributed official documents � and some academic texts � begin to absorb and respond to the realities. A first step would be recognising courageously committed investigative reporting that lays out and details the large scale of �the bad and the ugly�. Without tackling all vulnerability drivers � that are the roots of DRC � the conditions of DRC will continue to prevail over attempts at DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(References)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(O�Keefe, Phil, Ken Westgate and Ben Wisner. 1976. Taking the Naturalness Out of Natural Disasters. Nature 260, 566-567.)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shamsie, Kamila. 2010. Pakistan�s floods are not just a natural disaster, but a failure of the state. The Guardian G2 5 August \(last accessed 5 August 2010\).)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 1989. Affordability and participation, need and vulnerability: Post-cyclone rehousing in Tonga. Sheffield: Sixth Inter-schools Conference on Development, University of Sheffield, Centre for Development Planning Studies.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, Susan E. 1982. The creation of vulnerability to natural disaster: Case studies from the Dominican Republic. Disasters 6\(1\): 38-43)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat. 2010. The State of African Cities 2010: Governance, Inequalities and Urban Land Markets. Nairboi: UNHabitat.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reuters AlertNet. 2011. Brazil OKs building of $17 bln Amazon power dam Thomson Reuters Foundation Service, 26 January \(last accessed 31 March 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, Michael M. 1996. Bridging the Research Divide: Studying refugees and development oustees. World Bank Reprint Series No 481. Washington, DC: World Bank.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Donnelly, Lynley. 2010. Rot runs deep in police stations. Mail & Guardian \(Johannesburg and Capetown RSA\) 10-16 September \(last accessed 23 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden, Miriam and Lucio Picci. 2005. Proposals for a new measure of corruption, illustrated with Italian data. Economics and Politics 17\(1\): 37-75.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mustafa, Daanish. 1998. Structural Causes of Vulnerability to Flood Hazard in Pakistan. Economic Geography 74\(3\): 289-305.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Telavi, Melei. 1983. War. In, Hugh Laracy \(ed.\), Tuvalu: A History. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 142-143.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, Susan E. 1981. The creation of vulnerable populations. Bath: Project for Natural Disaster Vulnerability Analysis, Centre for Development Studies, University of Bath \(last accessed 14 March 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
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0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(AFP. 2011. Bangladesh anti-graft official �held taking bribe�. AFP \(Agence France-Presse\) 24 January \(last accessed 13 April 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Deutsch, Anthony. 2011. Indonesia convicts jailed tax official of bribery. Financial Times 19 January \(last accessed 21 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Daily Nation. 2011. KACC probes 400 graft cases on devolved funds. Daily Nation \(Nairobi\) 4 February \(last accessed 23 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pei, Minxin. 2007. Corruption threatens China�s future Policy Brief 55. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2008a. Worm in the bud: Corruption, construction and catastrophe. In, Lee Bosher \(ed.\), Hazards and the Built Environment. London: Taylor & Francis, 243-245)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ryan, Yasmine. 2010. Gabon �siphoned funds� to France. Aljazeera 29 December \(last accessed 3 May 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hirsch, Afua. 2010. �Sudan leader stashed $9bn in UK banks�. The Guardian, 18 December \(last accessed 22 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harding, Luke. 2010. Wikileaks cables paint bleak picture of Tajikistan, central Asia�s poorest state. The Guardian, 13 December \(last accessed 16 November 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kar, D. 2010. The Drivers and Dynamics of Illicit Financial Flows from India: 1948-2008. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Githongo, John. 2005. Summary Report on Findings of Graft on the Government of Kenya. John Githongo \(last accessed 17 March 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI. 2011a. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2000-2009. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shaxson, Nicholas. 2011.Treasure Islands: Tax havens and the men who stole the world. London: Bodley Head.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shah, Saeed. 2010. Pakistan flood response prompts rising anti-government resentment. The Guardian 13 August \(last accessed 14 September 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ali, Tanvir, Babar Shahbaz and Abid Suleri. 2006. Analysis of Myths and Realities of Deforestation in Northwest Pakistan: Implications for Forestry Extension. International Journal of Agriculture & Biology 8\(1\), 107-110.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudmeier-Rieux, Karen, Michel Jaboyedoff, Alain Breguet, and J�r�me Dubois. 2011a. The 2005 Pakistan Earthquake Revisited: Methods for Integrated Landslide Assessment. Mountain Research and Development 31\(2\): 112-121.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Nripal, Adhikary. 2008. Mountain Forum Global E-conference on Culture and Risk: Understanding the Socio-Cultural Settings that Influence Risk from Natural Hazards ICIMOD/SIDA 2008. Moderator: Ken Hewitt. Theme 1: The role of socio-cultural settings in influencing peoples� capacities to deal with risk from natural hazards and to adopt or reject modern safety measures \(last accessed 13 May 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudmeier-Rieux, Karen, Stephanie Jaquet, Marc-Henri Derron, Michel Jaboyedoff, Sanjaya Devkota. 2011b. A Case Study of Landslides and Coping Strategies in Two Villages of Central-Eastern Nepal. Journal of Applied Geography 1\(32\): 680-690.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Amnesty International. 2011. End forced evictions \(last accessed 10 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Survival International. 2010. Serious Damage: Tribal peoples and large dams. London: Survival International.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(World Commission on Dams. 2000. The World Dams Report, London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Gaillard, JC, Catherine C. Liamzon and Jessica D. Villanueva. 2007. �Natural� disaster? A retrospect into the causes of the late-2004 typhoon disaster in Eastern Luzon, Philippines. Environmental hazards 7\(4\): 257-270.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI. 2011b. Transnational Crime in the Developing World. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2011b. Corruption: The hidden perpetrator of under-development and vulnerability to natural hazards and disasters The Pat Reid Lecture 2010. J�mb� 3\(2\): 464-475 \(last accessed 14 June 2012\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Talk Vietnam. 2012. Denmark stops ODA grant for three projects. 4 June. World Press \(last accessed 14 June 2012\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ambraseys, Nicholas and Roger Bilham. 2011. Corruption kills. Nature 469: 153-155.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Chien, Kirby. 2008. Quake damage tied to corruption � expert. Thomson Reuters, 14 May \(last accessed 31 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hoogvelt, Ankie M.M. 1976. The Sociology of Developing Societies. London: Macmillan.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Johnston, Michael. 2009. Poverty and Corruption. Forbes Magazine 22 January \(last accessed 14 April 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UN and World Bank. 2007. Stolen Asset Recovery \(StAR\) Initiative: Challenges, Opportunities, and Action Plan. Washington, DC: UN Office on Drugs and Crime and the World Bank.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Baker, Raymond, John Christensen and Nicholas Shaxson. 2008. Catching up with Corruption. The American Interest Online September-October \(last accessed 12 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2008b. Corruption and earthquake destruction: Observations on events in Turkey, Italy and China \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Forsythe, Michael. 2010. China probed 240,000 cases of official corruption over seven year period. Bloomberg \(last accessed 6 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Branigan, Tania. 2011. China launches corruption inquiry into railway minister. The Guardian 13 February \(last accessed 13 March 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(OECD. 2010. Tax haven criteria. Centre for Tax Policy and Administration. OECD, Paris \(last accessed 17 April 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Murphy, Richard. 2011. The government expands its plans to become �Tax Haven UK�. Financial Integrity and Economic Development Task Force \(last accessed 7 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Collier, Paul. 2008. The Bottom Billion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Colvin, Geoff. 2011. Corruption: The biggest threat to developing economies. CNN Money. 20 April \(last accessed 23 May 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndung�u, Njuguna. 2007. Implications of capital flight for macroeconomic management and growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Keynote address at the Senior Policy Seminar on Implications of Capital Flight and Macroeconomic Management and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, South African Reserve Bank, Pretoria, 30 October 2007.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndikumana, L�once and James Boyce. 2008. New estimates of capital flight from Sub-Saharan African countries: Linkages with external borrowing and policy options. University of Massachusetts Political Economy Research Institute. Working Paper 166, 4 August \(last accessed 7 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndikumana, L�once and James Boyce. 2011. Africa�s Odious Debts: How foreign loans and capital flight bled a continent. London: Zed Books.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP. 2011. Illicit Financial Flows from the Least Developed Countries: 1990-2008. New York: United Nations Development Programme.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pasricha, Anjana. 2011. Indian government tracking illegal money stashed overseasVoice of America News, 25 January \(last accessed 25 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Rice, Xan. 2007. The looting of Kenya. The Guardian 31 August \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hamza, Mohamed and Roger Zetter. 1998. Structural adjustment, urban systems, and disaster vulnerability in developing countries. Cities 15\(4\): 291-299.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP. 2010. Disaster Risk Reduction, Governance & Mainstreaming. New York: Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, United Nations Development Programme.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Wisner, Ben, George Kent, Jean Carmalt, Brian Cook, JC Gaillard, Allan Lavell, Marcus Oxley, Terry Gibson, Ilan Kelman, Dewald van Niekerk, Jonatan Lassa, Zen Delica Willison, Mihir Bhatt, Omar-Dario Cardona, Djillali Benouar, Lizardo Narvaez. 2011. Political Will for Disaster Reduction: What Incentives Build It, And Why Is It So Hard To Achieve? Draft 7B, 31 January \(last accessed 30 April 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Baker, Raymond. 2012. Outflows, Not Aid, Must be Curtailed to Fight Poverty. Huffington Post World. 12 January \(last accessed 17 January 2012\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James, Ilan Kelman and Sarah A.V. Lewis. 2011. Is �fear itself� the only thing we have to fear? Explorations of psychology in perceptions of the vulnerability of others. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2011-3: 89-104.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2011a. Climate-proofing development: corruption risks in adaptation infrastructure. Global Corruption Report 2011: Climate Change Item 5.3. Berlin: Transparency International.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Le Billon, P. 2003. Buying Peace Or Fuelling War: The Role Of Corruption In Armed Conflicts. Journal of International Development 15: 413-426.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shisanya, C.A. and M. Kyayesi. 2007. How is climate change perceived in relation to other socioeconomic and environmental threats in Nairobi, Kenya? Climatic Change 85: 271-284.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bello, Walden, Marissa De Guzman, Mary Lou Malig and Herbert Docena. 2005. The anti-development state: the political economy of permanent crisis in the Philippines. London: Zed Books.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Goncalves, Marilyne Pereira, Melissa Panjer, Theodore S. Greenberg and William B. Magrat. 2012. Justice for Forests Improving Criminal Justice Efforts to Combat Illegal Logging. Washington, DC: The World Bank.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI. 2011c. G20 Commits to Addressing Illicit Financial Flows, Links Tax Haven Secrecy to Poverty. Press Release. 4 November. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sulston, John. 2010. Ten questions science must answer: How do we ensure humanity survives and flourishes? Guardian G2 30 November \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
Q
q
15.000 15.052 577.500 761.948 re W n
q
26.250 777.000 555.000 0.000 re W n
Q
1.000 1.000 1.000 rg
26.250 60.052 555.000 716.948 re f
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 775.875 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Country)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 775.875 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Year)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 775.875 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Details)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 775.875 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Source)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 759.994 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 759.994 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 759.994 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 759.994 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 744.112 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 744.112 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 750.139 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(ENDANGERMENT)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 744.112 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 744.112 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 744.112 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 744.112 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 728.231 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 728.231 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 734.258 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1. Environmental degradation: bad and ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 728.231 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 718.376 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 728.231 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 718.376 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 728.231 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 718.376 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Over-exploiting environmental resources for )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 710.745 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(development, thereby augmenting environmental )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 703.114 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(hazards.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 728.231 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 716.016 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Bidwai, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 526.790 716.465 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
26.625 697.087 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 687.233 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 697.087 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 687.233 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 697.087 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 687.233 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Illegal logging, increasing flood/landslide hazards )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 679.601 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(plus the felled trees become another hazard when )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 671.970 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(swept away by flood waters.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 697.087 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 684.872 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Shamsie, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 536.003 685.321 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
26.625 665.944 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(United Kingdom)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 665.944 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 665.944 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Placing housing on river flood plains, often due to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 648.458 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(greed from developers seeking quick profit and local )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 640.826 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(authorities seeking quick tax revenues.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 665.944 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis and Kelman, )] TJ ET
BT 470.971 646.097 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 492.655 646.546 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(20)] TJ ET
26.625 634.800 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 624.945 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Japan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 634.800 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 624.945 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 634.800 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 624.945 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(114 new buildings, including 36 hotels, are deemed )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 617.314 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(to be of inadequate construction for the hazard faced.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 634.800 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 622.584 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 522.997 623.033 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(24)] TJ ET
26.625 611.288 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 601.433 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Germany)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 611.288 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 601.433 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 611.288 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 601.433 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Placing housing on river flood plains, especially )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 593.801 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(greedy local authorities seeking development.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 611.288 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 599.072 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Pierce, 2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 525.707 599.521 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(25)] TJ ET
26.625 587.775 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 587.775 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 587.775 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 587.775 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 571.894 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 571.894 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 577.920 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2. Discrimination: bad.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 571.894 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Spain)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 571.894 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 571.894 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Sub-standard living conditions for migrants )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 554.408 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(preventing them from enacting DRR.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 571.894 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 559.678 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lawrence, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 540.342 560.127 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(26)] TJ ET
26.625 548.381 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(United Kingdom)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 548.381 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 548.381 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Marginalised citizenship which exposes those )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 530.895 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(affected to hazards.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 548.381 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Hogan and Marandola, )] TJ ET
BT 470.971 528.534 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 492.655 528.983 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(27)] TJ ET
26.625 521.918 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(USA)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 521.918 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 521.918 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Disadvantaged living in physically vulnerable areas, )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 504.432 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(exposed by Hurricane Katrina.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 521.918 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 509.702 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Laska et al., 2006)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 547.937 510.151 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(28)] TJ ET
26.625 498.406 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Tonga)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 498.406 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 498.406 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Financial judgements denied the social need for )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 480.919 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(shelter, leaving the poorest without post-disaster )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 473.288 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(housing and thus made more vulnerable, serving )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 465.657 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(DRC.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 498.406 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
580.125 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 486.190 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 522.997 486.639 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(29)] TJ ET
26.625 459.631 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Dominican Republic)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 459.631 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1982)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 459.631 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Exclusion from arable land increasing vulnerability to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 442.144 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(famine.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 459.631 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 447.415 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, 1982)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.336 447.864 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(30)] TJ ET
26.625 436.118 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 436.118 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1960s onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 436.118 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Townships as ghettos of discrimination, which places )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 418.632 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(them in hazardous locations and which inhibits local )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 411.000 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 436.118 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 423.902 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 543.043 424.351 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(31)] TJ ET
26.625 404.974 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 404.974 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 404.974 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 404.974 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 373.831 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 373.831 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 395.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(3. Displacement: bad.In all these cases, moving people from their land and communities increased their vulnerability by )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 387.488 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(resettling them in unfamiliar places without adequate support for DRR in the new location, especially where the people )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 379.857 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(experienced unusual for to them.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 373.831 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil and Guyana)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 373.831 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 373.831 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$17 billion Amazon dam project displaces tribes.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 373.831 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reuters AlertNet, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 354.433 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(32)] TJ ET
26.625 347.367 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Philippines)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 347.367 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2001)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 347.367 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One dam displaced 61,700 people.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 347.367 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 335.152 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Heijmans, 2001)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 538.704 335.601 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
26.625 328.535 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 328.535 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1959-1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 328.535 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(10 million people displaced by water projects.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 328.535 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 316.320 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, 1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 530.046 316.769 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(33)] TJ ET
26.625 309.703 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 309.703 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1956-1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 309.703 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(18.5 million people displaced by dams and mines.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 309.703 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 297.488 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, 1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 530.046 297.937 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(33)] TJ ET
26.625 290.871 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 290.871 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 290.871 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 290.871 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 274.990 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 274.990 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 281.016 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(IMPOVERISHMENT)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 274.990 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 274.990 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 274.990 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 274.990 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 259.109 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 259.109 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 265.135 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(4. Self-seeking expenditure: ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 259.109 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 259.109 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2009-2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 259.109 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Doubling of project costs implies misuse of funds )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 241.623 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(which could have been used for DRR or sustainability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 233.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(projects.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 259.109 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 246.893 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Donnelly, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 536.003 247.342 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
26.625 227.965 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Italy)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 227.965 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1945 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 227.965 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Less infrastructure in the south for more money spent.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 227.965 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden and Picci, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 208.567 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(35)] TJ ET
26.625 201.502 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 201.502 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 201.502 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 201.502 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 185.621 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 185.621 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 191.647 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(5. Denial of access to resources: bad and ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 185.621 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 185.621 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1998)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 185.621 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Skewed access to productive land, affecting ability to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 168.134 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(reduce vulnerability through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 185.621 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 173.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mustafa, 1998)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 532.757 173.854 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(36)] TJ ET
26.625 162.108 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tuvalu)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 162.108 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1941-1945)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 162.108 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Long-term depletion of crops due to World War 2 )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 144.622 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(airfields, affecting ability to reduce vulnerability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 136.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 162.108 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 149.892 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Telavi, 1983)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 524.079 150.341 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
26.625 130.964 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Martinique)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 130.964 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1635 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 130.964 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Unequal distribution of landholdings, affecting ability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 113.478 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to reduce vulnerability through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 130.964 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
580.125 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 118.749 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, 1981)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.336 119.198 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(38)] TJ ET
26.625 107.452 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 107.452 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 107.452 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 107.452 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 76.308 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 76.308 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 97.597 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(6. Corruption: bad.In all these cases, the money could have been used for DRR or vulnerability reduction measures, )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 89.966 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(especially in wider contexts of supporting local livelihoods and aiming for sustainable communities. Where noted, money lost )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 82.334 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(through corruption could have been used to increase the hazard resistance of infrastructure.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 76.308 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 66.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bangladesh)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 76.308 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 76.308 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Anti-graft official accepted US$14,000 bribe.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 76.308 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(AFP, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(39)] TJ ET
26.625 60.427 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Indonesia)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 60.427 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 60.427 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tax official took bribes of millions of US$ in gold.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 60.427 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Deutsch, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(40)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Local misuse of development funds in 47 counties.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Daily Nation, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(41)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bribes and theft are estimated at 8% of government spending.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pei, 2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Turkey)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1999)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Earthquake damage from corrupt construction control.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 2008a)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(43)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 791.625 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 791.625 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 791.625 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(7. Siphoning of public money: ugly.In all these cases, the money could have been used for DRR or vulnerability reduction measures, especially in wider contexts of supporting local livelihoods and aiming for sustainable communities.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Gabon)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$36 million embezzled.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ryan, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(44)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(President siphoned US$9 billion overseas.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hirsch, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(45)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(President controls revenues from state industries.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harding, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(46)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2008)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The country�s illegal economy represents 50% of GDP.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kar, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(47)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2001-2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Government money was paid to a fictitious firm for contracts. Some of that was paid back.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Githongo, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(48)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mexico)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2000-2009)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit financial outflows of US$46.24 billion.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI, 2011a)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Angola)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1993-2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$4.68 billion lost between 1993 and 2002.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shaxson, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Italy)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1945 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Massive siphoning of development funding.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden and Picci, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(35)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 1: Environmental degradation)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Development affecting the environment may be initiated, perpetrated or permitted that places people at risk when they occupy that development. The risks may arise from environmental degradation or environmental modification that creates or augments hazards.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bidwai \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( describes India�s growth as having two negative sides: �persistent poverty, social bondage and economic servitude� and �sleaze and collusive business-politics relations that mock transparency, accountability, democratic policy-making and the public interest.� He notes that �what counts is privileged access to natural resources and the national commons, most critically land, which is at the core of the government�s discretionary powers�. Amongst other examples are �mining and metallurgical projects that blatantly violate environmental regulations; corporate land grabs in the guise of export promotion zones; the razing of virgin tropical rainforest to make way for opulent housing�. These actions have a tendency of exacerbating, even creating, flood, landslide, and drought hazards.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In the floods of 2010, millions of people were affected by torrential monsoon rains and consequent floods. By August, entire villages had been washed away, 1,600 people had died, 2 million had been made homeless, and dissent was leading to political instability \(Shah, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(51)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. It was reported that �the timber mafia, which has a particularly strong hold on the areas now affected by flooding [is] one of the most powerful and ruthless organisations within Pakistan�engages in illegal logging, which is estimated to be worth billions of rupees each year� \(Shamsie, 2010, online; see also Ali et al., 2006\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(52)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. In addition to deforestation contributing to flooding, landslides, and soil erosion, illegally felled trees hidden in ravines were dislodged by floodwaters and destroyed bridges essential for access to flooded areas. Dams and retaining walls intended for flood control were possibly weakened as well which might have contributed to some of the inundation, although detailed investigations have not been carried out \(Shamsie, 2010; Sudmeier-Rieux, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(53)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 2: Discrimination)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ethnic, religious, gender or \(dis\)ability-based discrimination, for example, may lead to deprivation, victimisation, or the forced adoption of hazard-prone habitation. Being discriminated against also reduces the options available for individuals and communities to adopt DRR measures.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Nepal)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Nripal \(2008, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(54)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( writes:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In my studies of a few villages of Nepal, I found that vulnerability is a political issue. Culture is a response to politics. Before we talk about preparedness or coping mechanisms that cultures have adopted in different temporal and spatial settings� it is necessary to address the root causes of vulnerabilities�In the Dhadhing district of Nepal, ethnic groups like Chepangs live in very steep lands�studies have shown that they are very adaptive to those settings. But it is the policies of institutionalized discrimination�over about eight hundred years, that has forced them to live in steep slopes. They have adapted well to those harsh conditions� but that does not mean they are completely safe. Food insecurity and poverty still haunt them and they are the first victims of hazards like landslides. They are living in the edge of vulnerability, not because of their cultural inclination but because of institutionalized discrimination against them.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudmeier-Rieux et al. \(2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(55)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( confirmed exactly this situation by comparing two villages in Nepal with landslide risk that is comparable, but with differing livelihoods and economic opportunities.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sectors of underdevelopment, such as South African townships, are ghettos of discrimination and deprivation and are dynamos of concentrated vulnerability. Most are overcrowded and prone to disease, fire, storms and flooding while the inhabitants experience forced removal and displacement without alternative accommodation.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat \(2010, pp. 209-210\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(31)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( states:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In Durban, Cape Town )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(and Johannesburg, recurring social catastrophes \(especially fires and floods devastating entire communities\) are viewed by officials as �natural disasters� or faults caused by their low-income victims. Yet, they are clearly a product of asymmetric public policy choices that favour the wealthy at the expense of the poor. The poor are most exposed and vulnerable to disasters and disease�Horrific fires in Alexandra, Johannesburg, are a product of informal settlement layout, overcrowding, highly combustible building materials and inadequate strategies for fire prevention� the most effective prevention of such fires would be provision of affordable electric power to replace the fire hazard of paraffin lamps and candles.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 3: Displacement)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Removal of habitation and people to make land available for other purposes, without compensation or alternative shelter, deprives families of accustomed livelihoods and exacerbates their vulnerability to natural hazards. Forced evictions are reported by Amnesty International \(2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(56)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( in places such as Kenya, Nigeria, Paraguay, Serbia and Zimbabwe. When deprived of familiar environments without support for learning about one�s new location, already vulnerable people can be subject to hazards with which they are unfamiliar.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One major cause of displacement is the construction of dams for hydro-electricity, with indigenous people particularly having their livelihoods devastated along with being threatened by extinction \(Survival International, 2010; World Commission on Dams, 2000\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(57)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(58)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Examples include Ethiopia, Kenya, Malaysia, Peru, and China. In such cases, vulnerability is increased because the new location is unfamiliar, traditional livelihoods and coping mechanisms have been disrupted and adequate support for long-term DRR is usually not available. These consequences result in the case studies below as well.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil and Guyana)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil is to construct a series of dams on the River Madeira, one of which would be the third largest in the world, despite protests since the 1980s by Kayap� Indians and other tribes. More large dams are planned for northern Brazil and southern Guyana, including the Upper Mazaruni dam which was stopped after protests, but is likely to be revived \(Survival International, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(57)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. In January 2011, Brazil�s environment agency approved the commencement of a 240-hectare site clearance project for the Belo Monte dam in the Amazon, with a budget of US$17 billion and displacing numerous native tribes \(Reuters AlertNet, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(32)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Philippines)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Locally perceived as more disastrous than natural hazards, are governmental �development� projects for dams, irrigation, mining operations, plantations and recreation areas, all requiring conversion of prime agricultural land to industrial and commercial use \(see also Gaillard et al., 2007\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(59)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Local communities are often not consulted, but are displaced, losing their rights, livelihoods, and lands. Such projects, having immediate negative effects on local poor communities and known as �development aggression� \(Heijmans, 2001,p. 5\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, are considered as human-made disasters more difficult to cope with than with those of a typhoon. Typhoons are said to destroy crops, houses and infrastructure, but not to undermine the basis of people�s means of survival. Displacement deprives people of their land, the most crucial resource to sustain their livelihood. Government or private compensation is far below the amount needed to rebuild a livelihood elsewhere, and land is not made available \(Heijmans, 2001\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Epitomising the state of impoverishment, Washington DC based Global Financial Integrity issued two reports in the early months of 2011. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2000-2009)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(GFI, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( describes how much of the colossal amounts of money secreted offshore has resulted from the siphoning of funds from developing countries, further impoverishing those countries and social conditions within them, thereby perpetuating and augmenting vulnerability. An additional cause of globally continuing poverty is described in the second report, )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Transnational Crime in the Developing World)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(GFI, 2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(60)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, which notes a US$650 billion �global illicit flow of goods, guns, people, and natural resources� \(p. v\) that functions easily in conditions of underdevelopment, poor governance, and fragile states, conditions that its activities perpetuate and that preclude effective and adequately resourced DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 4: Self-seeking expenditure of public money)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Self-seeking expenditure manipulates funds, that otherwise could be applied to development, such as DRR work. Instead, these funds are put towards projects that benefit the manipulator or development expenditure is used as a vehicle for personal gain. Either process skews expenditure that could otherwise be applied towards raising the quality of life and reducing vulnerability for wider sectors of society or communities at large.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(While no guarantee exists that unsiphoned funds would be used for DRR, the fundamental principle is that public money ought to be used for public good. When that does not happen, self-seeking expenditure is epitomised. By denying the public the benefits from the expenditure of public money, vulnerability is necessarily created. Cases of abuse of entrusted power for personal gain leading to increased community vulnerability are given below as corruption and siphoning of public funds.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Police are an inherent part of community resilience and are involved in some DRR activities, as well as in post-disaster response. Where police abuse the system or fail in their duties, vulnerability is augmented, partly because the police are not playing their expected role and partly because the populace will not trust the police to assist.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(During 2009 and 2010, three new police stations were constructed at Inanda, Ezakheni and Hebron. Inanda Police Station took six years to build, during which costs soared from a budgeted ZAR15.9 million to an actual cost of ZAR42.0 million. Ezakheni Police Station had an estimated cost of ZAR10.6 million that grew to an actual cost of ZAR23.9 million. Hebron Police Station began construction in June 2006 and was not complete at September 2010 when its budgeted cost of ZAR14.7 million had by then risen to ZAR18.6 million and was still increasing. According to Donnelly \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, �The average cost of consultants was 18% of a project�s budget, but in some projects it was as high as 25%�. Extended completion times and higher overall payments suggest contractor and consultant complicity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Overall, for these three police stations at the time of reporting by Donnelly \(2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, ZAR84.5 million of public money had been spent on three contracts budgeted at a total of ZAR41.2 million � an overall expenditure of more than twice the budgeted cost. That misuse of public money draws resources directly away from DRR, and other community development concerns, not just through moving money away from the public good but also through the police apparently being complicit in that process. In this case of trade mispricing, six police stations, or their developmental equivalent, could have been provided for the ultimate actual cost of three \(Lewis, 2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(61)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. That would have contributed to reducing community vulnerability through policing while instilling trust in the police as part of building a resilient community.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Vietnam)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Climate change influences resilience to natural hazards, with climate change adaptation being part of DRR. In June 2012, three of four climate change research projects in Vietnam funded by the Danish International Development Agency \(DANIDA\),were stopped by the Danish Embassy due to fraudulent expenditure by Vietnamese participants. Out of the approximately US$3.45 million in aid for the projects, US$2.45 million had been distributed when US$550,000 was found to have been misused \(Talk Vietnam, 2012\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(62)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The projects comprised assessments of climate change impacts on land use and livelihoods, socio-economic development, estuarine ecosystems and the effects upon rice production of submergence and salinity. All these activities are part of DRR and link to social improvement, well-being and poverty reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 5: Denial of access to resources)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Some people�s actions, inadvertent or deliberate, have caused others to be, or to become, deprived of resources that either belonged to them or that were commonly available. Such actions may have been perpetrated in history, but their long-lasting consequences continue to be a part of present-day conditions, having imposed vulnerability, and may have come to be regarded as permanent, normal and acceptable.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Tuvalu)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(During World War 2 on Funafuti, the main island in what was then the Ellice Islands, and is now Tuvalu \(Telavi, 1983, p. 142\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In the construction of the airfield a large portion of the land formerly used for growing )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(pulaka)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( and )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(taro)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( was covered up. The local people were later compensated yet they suffered an enduring loss. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pulaka)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( is no longer a staple food, although during the war it did not matter. The American occupation brought them more food � as well as cigarettes, soap and kerosene � more than they had ever had before. Many still think of that as the best time of their lives.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(For the outer island of Nanumea \(Telavi, 1983, p. 143\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(most damage done on the island was done by its defenders. The airfield took up one sixth of the land area, and to make it the Americans destroyed nearly half of the coconut trees, 22,000 out of 54,000. Moreover, efforts to replant that land have not been very successful. The coral is packed too hard for the trees to grow properly)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reliable local food is reduced, decreasing self-sufficiency and augmenting vulnerability.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 6: Corruption)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The link between corruption and disasters is more pervasively invidious than its obvious after-the-fact effect manifesting in, for example, earthquake damage \(Ambraseys and Bilham, 2011; Lewis, 2008a; Chien, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(43)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(63)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(64)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. At one time, corruption was typically condoned as �usefully functional� or as grease for the wheels of bureaucracy, and more often ignored than investigated. That has been the case even though it deprives the poorest of what little money they have � by which poverty is exacerbated and, at higher social levels, it may keep undeserving elites in power \(Hoogvelt, 1976\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(65)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Now, it is recognised that the hierarchical greed within corruption, its spread and extent, and its scale, consequently distorts the economy, increasing costs of goods and services. As Johnston \(2009, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(66)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( notes, �The links between corruption and poverty affect both individuals and businesses, and they run in both directions: poverty invites corruption, while corruption deepens poverty.�)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The World Bank�s Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative concludes for developing countries that �The cross-border flow of the global proceeds from criminal activities, corruption, and tax evasion is estimated at between $1 trillion and $1.6 trillion per year� \(UN and World Bank, 2007, p. 1\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(67)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Using those figures, Baker et al. \(2008: online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(68)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( comments:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(This dwarfs foreign aid, which totalled about $50 billion a year through the 1990s and is about $100 billion today. So we have $50-100 billion of aid flowing into poor countries, and $500�800 billion of dirty money flowing out. In other words, for every dollar Western governments have been handing out across the top of the table, crooked Western banks, businesses and middlemen of various descriptions have been taking back up to ten dollars of illicit proceeds under the table)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Foreign aid includes DRR and other vulnerability reduction measures. If the �dirty money� were invested in the communities where the money came from, perhaps there would be no need for foreign aid to initiate and support DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China�s corruption costs have been estimated as 8% of spending from 1996-2005 contributing �to China�s massive environmental degradation, deterioration in social services, and the rising costs of housing, health care, and education� \(Pei, 2007, p. 5\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(��Even a relatively low-level official can amass an illicit fortune in tens of millions of yuan� \(Pei, 2007, p. 2\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The destruction of so many schools in the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, which killed 75,000 people including 900 children in one school, was strongly suspected to have resulted from corruption in construction \(Lewis, 2008b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(69)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The Chinese government states that it is battling corruption; for instance, �Chinese prosecutors investigated more than 240,000 embezzlement, bribery and other cases involving official corruption from 2003 to 2009�\(Forsythe, 2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(70)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Nonetheless, �corruption remains rife and is one of the most potent sources of public anger� \(Branigan, 2011, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(71)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 7: Siphoning of public money)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The director of Global Financial Integrity \(GFI\), Raymond Baker, has described the development of offshore financial havens as �the ugliest chapter in global economic affairs since slavery� \(Shaxson, 2011, p. 158\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Diversion and siphoning of public money into private bank accounts, wherever they are held, is an aspect of corruption \(described above\), drawing money away from potential DRR activities. Inclusive of development funding, money is stolen and sent to private, offshore tax havens before it can be spent for other purposes, which could have included the public good such as for vulnerability reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The fine distinction made here between corruption and the siphoning of public money is between illicit expenditure and direct theft. Both are practiced for private gain. As a driver of vulnerability at national levels, the siphoning of public money has no rival to the enormity of geographical extent and size of the sums involved.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(According to Dorling \(2010: 101\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(17)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, there is a:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(�trillion-dollar-a-year flow of illicit funds to rich nations using webs of financial trusts, nominee bank accounts, numerous methods to avoid tax, and simple mispricing�Traditional bribery and corruption within poor countries accounts for only 3% of this sum. Despite this, when corruption is considered it is almost always that kind of corruption and not the other 97%, the corruption of very rich Western bankers and businessmen \(and a handful of businesswomen\)�orchestrated from [London], from New York, and from a plethora of well-connected tax havens.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Approximately 50% of banking assets and 33% of foreign investment by multinational corporations are routed offshore through small island financial centres, estimated by the IMF as amounting overall to US$18 trillion, equivalent to one third of the world�s GDP \(Shaxson, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Providing secrecy, an escape from financial regulation and taxation elsewhere, not only small islands are involved. The United Kingdom has been identified by the IMF as an offshore jurisdiction \(Shaxson, 2011; OECD, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(72)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( with its government encouraging that status and further covert activity \(Murphy, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(73)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit outflows mean that governments have less money to spend on development and sustainability activities \(Collier, 2008; Colvin, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(74)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(75)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. For example, before it could be spent on infrastructure and general construction, millions of dollars of international aid have been sent from some African countries to private external bank accounts, often in the countries of the origin of the aid \(Baker et al., 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(68)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Ndung�u \(2007, p. 3\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(76)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( asks about Africa:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How many Harvards could be established in this continent to create the critical mass of world-class engineers and scientists, and intellectual leaders needed to advance Africa�s development, expand industrial output and enhance employment creation in the era of knowledge from the half a trillion US dollars stored by a handful of Africans in save [sic] havens?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Meanwhile, GFI \(2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( reports crime, corruption and trade mispricing�inclusive of kickbacks, bribes, embezzlement and other forms of official corruption�as leading to illicit outflows from developing countries of over US$1 trillion a year. Amongst countries with the highest cumulative illicit financial outflows between 2000 and 2008 were China at US$2.18 trillion, Russia at US$427 billion, Mexico at US$416 billon, Malaysia at US$291 billion, Venezuela at US$157 billion and Nigeria at US$130 billion \(GFI, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Approximately US$854 billion is a conservative estimate of total illicit financial outflows from Africa, as it could possibly be �as high as US$1.8 trillion� \(Shaxson, 2011, p. 157\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndikumana and Boyce \(2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( examined capital sent from 40 African countries between 1970 and 2004. They conclude that sub-Saharan Africa is a ��net creditor� to the rest of the world� \(p. 6\) because �Real capital flight over the 35-year period amounted to about $420 billion \(in 2004 dollars\) for the 40 countries as a whole� \(p. 6\). That amounts to over double these countries� combined external debt \(Ndikumana and Boyce, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The difference between the assets and the liabilities is that �private external assets belong to a narrow, relatively wealthy stratum of its population, while public external debts are borne by the people through their governments� \(Ndikumana and Boyce, 2008, pp. 27-28; see also Ndikumana and Boyce, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(78)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(From 48 Least Developed Countries between 1990 and 2008, illicit flows�mainly to developed country banks and offshore financial centres�represented �a net resource transfer of about US$197 billion into the rest of the world \(mainly developed countries\)� \(UNDP, 2011, p. 14\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(79)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. If such funds were applied appropriately internally, then development, poverty alleviation, and DRR could receive significant boosts through domestic initiatives.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One estimate asserts that �rich Indians have spirited abroad the equivalent of half of India�s GDP over six decades� \(Bidwai, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Another states that the total illegal outflows of cash from India�s independence in 1948 until 2008 would add up to at least US$462 billion with compound interest \(Kar, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(47)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. These sums may have been from private income sent overseas to avoid Indian taxation or siphoned from public funds. Either way, public money in India is being severely depleted by this activity. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In January 2011, after an intervention from India�s Supreme Court regarding illicit flows ending up in bank accounts overseas, the Indian government took steps to try to curtail the problem, citing that they had detected tax evasion worth US$3.3 billion over the previous 18 months \(Pasricha, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(80)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( .)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In August 2007, Rice \(2007, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(81)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( reported that \(see also Githongo, 2005\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(48)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The breathtaking extent of corruption perpetrated by the family of the former Kenyan leader Daniel Arap Moi was exposed�in a secret report that laid bare a web of shell companies, secret trusts and frontmen that his entourage used to funnel hundreds of millions of pounds into nearly 30 countries including Britain. The 110-page report�alleges that relatives and associates of Mr Moi siphoned off more than �1bn of government money�The assets accumulated included multimillion pound properties in London, New York and South Africa, as well as a 10,000-hectare ranch in Australia and bank accounts containing hundreds of millions of pounds. The report, commissioned by the Kenyan government, was submitted in 2004, but never acted upon.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(A report by the US ambassador to Tajikistan alleges that although the country experiences many disasters and is surrounded by difficult neighbours, the problems witnessed emerge internally. In particular, Tajikistan�s president, Emomali Rahmon \(Harding, 2010, online\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(46)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(runs the ex-Soviet republic�s economy for his own personal profit: �From the president down to the policeman on the street, government is characterized by cronyism and corruption.��Tajikistan�s sole industrial exports are aluminium and hydroelectricity. But most of the revenues from the �technically state-owned Tajik Aluminium Company \(Talco\) end up in a secretive offshore company controlled by the president�The state budget sees little of the income�.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan has high disaster vulnerability and needs DRR, but funds that could be available disappear due to the leader�s corruption.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(Integrating DRR to avoid DRC)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Why so many underdeveloped countries remain underdeveloped, or why the extent and levels of poverty and vulnerability prevail, are questions that cannot be answered without considering the colossal sums that accrue in private offshore bank accounts. Corruption is cited as an impediment to development \(Collier, 2008, p. 66\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(74)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and �the biggest threat to developing economies� \(Colvin, 2011, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(75)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. These comments equally apply to the other behaviours presented above. To consider DRR should entail questioning these causes of persistent poverty and persistent vulnerability, in turn being the prime cause of disaster risk.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Notwithstanding similar recommendations made years earlier \(e.g. Hamza and Zetter, 1998; Lewis, 1999\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(82)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, recommendation 7.5 of the Global Assessment Report \(UNISDR, 2009\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( encouragingly expresses that �a set of governance arrangements is needed for disaster risk reduction, poverty reduction and climate change adaptation, which is capable of ensuring that risk considerations are factored into all development investments� \(p. 181\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(That, as far as it goes, is how it should be. The evidence cited in this paper indicates that much more is at stake. As well as development, there is contra-development. Restriction of UNISDR�s \(2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( recommendation 7.5 to only the three named sectors, and the suggestion that �development of a single governance framework for risk reduction would seem to offer opportunities for more effective policy implementation and for avoiding duplication and lack of coordination� \(p. 181\), indicate an approach too narrow for sufficient DRR when caused by the behaviours exemplified above.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP \(2010, p. 1\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( links vulnerability and disasters with governance:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Principles of good governance include broad participation, transparency, accountability, efficiency and responsiveness. All are as important for DRR as they are for development at large. A central criterion of good governance � namely, the principle of ensuring that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decisions about the allocation of resources affecting them � is essential for effective DRR and sustainable disaster recovery.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP \(2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( speaks to democratically elected governments as the implied norm and, as with the UNISDR reports, assumes an epitome of the good. Without acknowledging the reality of the bad and the ugly�that is, of mal-governance, greed, and incompetence amongst others�this document also paints over the cracks in its fa�ade. Why is it that �Many disaster-prone countries have not embraced mainstreaming DRR concerns into development practices as an underlying principle� \(UNDP, 2010, p. 2\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(? If it is shortages of money or political will, then the motives behind these superficial excuses have been amply demonstrated in this paper.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Documents produced by the United Nations are not the only sources of myopic visions of reality. Some academic documents also fail to go far enough. As one example, a paper jointly produced by 16 authors \(Wisner et al., 2011\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(84)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, searches for incentives to achieve political will for the successful implementation of DRR. Corrupt practises offer incentives of personal profit of a magnitude far outweighing any, at a personal level, that might be achieved by DRR � and require less work for their installation. The paper makes limited active mention of the scale of corruption in all of its forms or of details regarding other illicit depletions of funds.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Perhaps the greatest failing of top-down institutionalised DRR is that it has been, and continues to be, separated from the reality of its contexts, whereas it is those contexts that actively contribute to the causes of disasters. By separating DRR from other separated sectors of government, the causes of people�s vulnerability to disasters must prevail \(Lewis, 1999, pp. 5, 133, 134\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The pervasive conditions of vulnerability cannot be allocated as the responsibility of one desk or department; they are the prerogative of all desks and departments for all kinds of business and activity, both policy and practice�Institutional and organisational separation is the greatest single impediment to the integration of development and disaster reduction�Vulnerability has to be reduced by strategic processes within development; not by the ad hoc application of services that commence only after disaster has occurred, or with the identification of, and attendance to, already �vulnerable groups�.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Since these words were written, along with much similar discourse before and after, disasters of colossal magnitude have continued to tax disaster practitioners in their post-event focus whilst vulnerability creation has proceeded apace. The task for DRR is to adopt a strategy inclusive of vulnerability and its causative processes. Those processes exemplified in this paper should be made targets for primary attention, not only by development aid but also by curtailing financial outflows \(Baker, 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(85)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Psychological issues, prevailing in any government�s task of assessing risk for others \(Lewis et al., 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(86)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( , may have to be overcome. How to evaluate the science and to respond to it in parallel with political and economic priorities presents all governments with similar difficulties. Accepting that disasters happen, as disasters always have, is politically easier than professing to be able to prevent them and running the risk of backlash due to carrying the blame for failure.How much is the interpretation of science influenced by what is considered to be acceptable?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How much is science willing to rock the boat of governments? How much, also, are politicians of questionable ethics likely to want to change their expectations of positions of personal power?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Current focus on climate change adaptation, often at the expense of other DRR work, perhaps provides an opportunity to put the principles into practice to achieve ethical management. As massive amounts of money are directed towards climate change adaptation, irrespective of other DRR concerns, disciplined governance is required to ensure that funds are used in their entirety for the purpose for which they have been disbursed. The capital being \(mis\)appropriated by climate change work also includes intellectual capital, in terms of climate change knowledge focusing on their own internal knowledge-generating processes, and re-inventing what is known already, rather than embracing and building on wider sectors and learning from what other fields have long established.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR, too, should not be seeking to isolate itself. Moving beyond its presently perceived remit from the institutionalised perspective, DRR should be informed about, and prepared to deal with, all topics that have a bearing upon vulnerability. Otherwise, DRR will not succeed \(Lewis, 2011a, p. 255\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(87)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Corruption acts as an engine of poverty and vulnerability� in poorer countries, where along with weak governance institutions there is often endemic corruption�Where corruption heightens community vulnerability, it exacerbates the need for adaptation measures. In regions plagued by weak governance, adaptation responses themselves may be particularly prone to corruption.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(These interactions are shown in practice, when examining topics that are not always considered in DRR processes. For example, DRR should consider conflict, due to the inherent links between disaster risk and different levels of conflict. Corruption interacts with rebellion in complex ways, but can certainly feed grievances that lead to revolutions \(Le Billon, 2003\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(88)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Consequently, DRR must deal with corruption, conflict and their interactions.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As an example of interactions amongst numerous topics, a survey in Nairobi, Kenya \(Shisanya and Kyayesi, 2007\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(89)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, found that respondents, in general, tended to be less concerned about flooding, El-Ni�o rainfall and �global warming� than about corruption, unemployment, crime, street children, garbage, transport and poverty. For DRR-related matters, pollution of the Nairobi River and HIV/AIDS \(along with perceived immorality/promiscuity\) did feature prominently. For some, to engage in DRR means engaging in topics concerning them immediately in tandem with demonstrating the links amongst those topics. That will link day-to-day known interests with longer term, more diffuse interests.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The prominence, but not exclusivity, of corruption is particularly notable. Bello et al. \(2005\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(90)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, use the example of the Philippines to explain that the country�s problems and the resulting vulnerabilities would still exist even without corruption \(p. 244\):)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(While corruption definitely needs to be condemned, it is not the reason behind the country�s stagnation. A more adequate explanation lies in the state being subjugated by a succession of ruling elite factions to serve narrow interests instead of the larger goals of sustainable development and social justice.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Arguably, the second sentence perfectly defines a usual form of �corruption�. Rather than quibbling over definitions \(see also the earlier discussion under �Impoverishment 7: Siphoning of public money�\), Bello et al.�s \(2005\)90 point is well taken in exemplifying Table 1�s other three categories under �impoverishment�. DRR can happen despite corruption and can fail in corruption�s absence, but that does not mean that DRR and corruption are separable�as amply illustrated, for example, by the links between illegal logging and corruption \(Goncalves et al., 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(91)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( which, as demonstrated above for Pakistan then augments vulnerability.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Now that the G20 are committed to addressing illicit financial flows and have made explicit links between poverty and tax haven secrecy \(GFI, 2011c\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(92)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, it is clear that DRR has for too long institutionally and conceptually separated itself from its social, economic and environmental contexts. DRR needs to integrate, not separate. Closer integration at global and international levels would hopefully encourage emulation at local levels. Sulston \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(93)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( offers ways of thinking of which DRR should take note:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(We certainly can survive but we can only do it by thinking in a rather larger and more collective way�The natural sciences will need to work in conjunction with the social sciences and governance if we are to ensure we will address challenges in an effective way. The challenges lie not so much in the natural sciences but in the social sciences and governance.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(Can bad and ugly become good?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Taking on these recommendations and better integrating DRR with other process does not in itself guarantee a disaster-free world�although DRR in itself has never aimed to guarantee a disaster-free world. Risks will always exist and decision-makers, necessarily, must always balance varying residual risks. It is important to acknowledge those residual risks, especially to determine if disasters could nonetheless be avoided through targeted interventions that do not, in turn, cause further risk-related \(or other\) problems.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(What does this mean practically to achieve DRR in the face of DRC? Could a conceptual model be developed to guide vulnerable people and communities, along with higher-scale authorities and influences, to recognise, acknowledge and manage residual risks that remain after DRR has been integrated as much as feasible? Could such a conceptual model map out what needs to be done beyond fighting corruption or contra-development?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(To a large degree, these conceptual models have long existed \(e.g. Lewis, 1984; O�Keefe et al., 1976\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(7)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(21)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and continue today to be reiterated, refined and interpreted from different angles \(e.g. Lewis et al., 2011; Wisner et al., 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(19)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(86)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. They frequently converge on the long-term, fundamental topics exemplified in this paper, especially with regards to changing culture and reallocating existing funds from processes that impede development�recognising endangerment and impoverishment as active, basic drivers of vulnerability and disaster risk.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The practice from these conceptual discussions appears through examples of successful DRR and development. Certainly, DRR being established and advancing is an overall �good�, but in many instances that has happened largely regardless of vulnerability. Similarly, recognising and admitting some of the drivers of vulnerability is also a �good�. But recognition, however important, is only the first step. Massively �bad� and �ugly� drivers persist in practice as a pernicious and prevailing reality, triggered by negative aspects of human behaviour. If DRR is being accepted as or aimed to be a �culture�, �contra-culture� exists as does �contra-development�. At the moment, the contra-culture dominates, as shown by this paper�s examples.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ways of working for DRR are required so that internationally conceived and jointly contributed official documents � and some academic texts � begin to absorb and respond to the realities. A first step would be recognising courageously committed investigative reporting that lays out and details the large scale of �the bad and the ugly�. Without tackling all vulnerability drivers � that are the roots of DRC � the conditions of DRC will continue to prevail over attempts at DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(References)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bronowski, Jacob. 1973. The Ascent of Man. London: British Broadcasting Corporation \(BBC\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Heijmans, Annelies. 2001. Vulnerability: A Matter of Perception. Working Paper 4. London: Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre \(now the Aon Benfield UCL Hazard Research Centre\), University College of London \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harwell, Emily E. 2000. Remote Sensibilities: Discourses of Technology and the Making of Indonesia�s Natural Disaster. Development and Change 31: 307-340.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR/SOPAC. 2009. Relationship between natural disasters and poverty: A Fiji case study. SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 678. Geneva: UNISDR and Suva: SOPAC.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR. 2009. 2009 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva: UNISDR \(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR. 2005. Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. Geneva: UNISDR \(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(O�Keefe, Phil, Ken Westgate and Ben Wisner. 1976. Taking the Naturalness Out of Natural Disasters. Nature 260, 566-567.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hewitt, Ken. 1983. Interpretations of Calamity from the Viewpoint of Human Ecology, Boston: Allen & Urwin.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hewitt, Ken. 1997. Regions of Risk: A geographical introduction to disaster. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 1999. Development in Disaster-prone Places: Studies in Vulnerability. London: IT Publications \(Practical Action\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Wisner, Ben, Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, and Ian Davis. 2004. At Risk: Natural hazards, people�s vulnerability and disasters. London: Routledge.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 1987. Risk, vulnerability and survival: Some post-Chernobyl implications for people, planning and civil defence. Local Government Studies July/August: 75-93.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GNCSODR. 2009. Clouds but little rain... Views from the Front Line. A local perspective of progress towards implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action. Teddington: Global Network of Civil Society Organisations for Disaster Reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cannon, Terry. 2008. Vulnerability, �innocent� disasters and the imperative of cultural understanding. Disaster Prevention and Management 17\(3\): 350-357.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kelman, Ilan and Tamsin A. Mather. 2008. Living with volcanoes: The sustainable livelihoods approach for volcano-related opportunities. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172\(3-4\): 189-198.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cannon, Terry. 2007. Reducing People�s Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Communities and Resilience. Paper presented at the WIDER Conference on Fragile States�Fragile Groups: Tackling Economic and Social Vulnerability, Helsinki, June.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Dorling, Daniel. 2010. Injustice: why social inequality persists. Bristol: Bristol Policy Press.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bureau of Investigative Journalism. 2011. About the Bureau \(last accessed 10 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Wisner, Ben, JC Gaillard, and Ilan Kelman \(eds\). 2012. Handbook of Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James and Ilan Kelman. 2010. Places, people and perpetuity: Community capacities in ecologies of catastrophe. ACME An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies 9\(2\): 191-220.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shamsie, Kamila. 2010. Pakistan�s floods are not just a natural disaster, but a failure of the state. The Guardian G2 5 August \(last accessed 5 August 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2010. Vulnerability, fear, denial and the social geography of risk. Paper delivered to the 2010 Annual Conference of the Disaster Management Institute of Southern Africa, Jeffrey�s Bay, South Africa.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pierce, Fred. 2002. European floods linked to poor land management. New Scientist 21 August \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lawrence, Felicity. 2011. Spain�s salad growers are modern-day slaves, say charities. The Guardian 7 February \(last accessed 4 March 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hogan, Daniel Joseph and Eduardo Marandola Jr. 2005. Towards an Interdisciplinary Conceptualisation of Vulnerability. Population, Place and Space 11: 455-471.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Laska, Shirley and Betty Hearn Morrow. 2006. Social Vulnerabilities and Hurricane Katrina: An Unnatural Disaster in New Orleans. Marine Technology Society Journal 40\(4\): 16-26.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 1989. Affordability and participation, need and vulnerability: Post-cyclone rehousing in Tonga. Sheffield: Sixth Inter-schools Conference on Development, University of Sheffield, Centre for Development Planning Studies.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, Susan E. 1982. The creation of vulnerability to natural disaster: Case studies from the Dominican Republic. Disasters 6\(1\): 38-43)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, Michael M. 1996. Bridging the Research Divide: Studying refugees and development oustees. World Bank Reprint Series No 481. Washington, DC: World Bank.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Donnelly, Lynley. 2010. Rot runs deep in police stations. Mail & Guardian \(Johannesburg and Capetown RSA\) 10-16 September \(last accessed 23 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden, Miriam and Lucio Picci. 2005. Proposals for a new measure of corruption, illustrated with Italian data. Economics and Politics 17\(1\): 37-75.)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Telavi, Melei. 1983. War. In, Hugh Laracy \(ed.\), Tuvalu: A History. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 142-143.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Deutsch, Anthony. 2011. Indonesia convicts jailed tax official of bribery. Financial Times 19 January \(last accessed 21 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Daily Nation. 2011. KACC probes 400 graft cases on devolved funds. Daily Nation \(Nairobi\) 4 February \(last accessed 23 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pei, Minxin. 2007. Corruption threatens China�s future Policy Brief 55. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hirsch, Afua. 2010. �Sudan leader stashed $9bn in UK banks�. The Guardian, 18 December \(last accessed 22 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harding, Luke. 2010. Wikileaks cables paint bleak picture of Tajikistan, central Asia�s poorest state. The Guardian, 13 December \(last accessed 16 November 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kar, D. 2010. The Drivers and Dynamics of Illicit Financial Flows from India: 1948-2008. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI. 2011a. Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2000-2009. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ali, Tanvir, Babar Shahbaz and Abid Suleri. 2006. Analysis of Myths and Realities of Deforestation in Northwest Pakistan: Implications for Forestry Extension. International Journal of Agriculture & Biology 8\(1\), 107-110.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudmeier-Rieux, Karen, Stephanie Jaquet, Marc-Henri Derron, Michel Jaboyedoff, Sanjaya Devkota. 2011b. A Case Study of Landslides and Coping Strategies in Two Villages of Central-Eastern Nepal. Journal of Applied Geography 1\(32\): 680-690.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Survival International. 2010. Serious Damage: Tribal peoples and large dams. London: Survival International.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Talk Vietnam. 2012. Denmark stops ODA grant for three projects. 4 June. World Press \(last accessed 14 June 2012\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ambraseys, Nicholas and Roger Bilham. 2011. Corruption kills. Nature 469: 153-155.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hoogvelt, Ankie M.M. 1976. The Sociology of Developing Societies. London: Macmillan.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UN and World Bank. 2007. Stolen Asset Recovery \(StAR\) Initiative: Challenges, Opportunities, and Action Plan. Washington, DC: UN Office on Drugs and Crime and the World Bank.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2008b. Corruption and earthquake destruction: Observations on events in Turkey, Italy and China \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Forsythe, Michael. 2010. China probed 240,000 cases of official corruption over seven year period. Bloomberg \(last accessed 6 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Branigan, Tania. 2011. China launches corruption inquiry into railway minister. The Guardian 13 February \(last accessed 13 March 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(OECD. 2010. Tax haven criteria. Centre for Tax Policy and Administration. OECD, Paris \(last accessed 17 April 2011\).)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Murphy, Richard. 2011. The government expands its plans to become �Tax Haven UK�. Financial Integrity and Economic Development Task Force \(last accessed 7 February 2011\).)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Collier, Paul. 2008. The Bottom Billion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndung�u, Njuguna. 2007. Implications of capital flight for macroeconomic management and growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Keynote address at the Senior Policy Seminar on Implications of Capital Flight and Macroeconomic Management and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, South African Reserve Bank, Pretoria, 30 October 2007.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndikumana, L�once and James Boyce. 2011. Africa�s Odious Debts: How foreign loans and capital flight bled a continent. London: Zed Books.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP. 2011. Illicit Financial Flows from the Least Developed Countries: 1990-2008. New York: United Nations Development Programme.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pasricha, Anjana. 2011. Indian government tracking illegal money stashed overseasVoice of America News, 25 January \(last accessed 25 January 2011\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Rice, Xan. 2007. The looting of Kenya. The Guardian 31 August \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hamza, Mohamed and Roger Zetter. 1998. Structural adjustment, urban systems, and disaster vulnerability in developing countries. Cities 15\(4\): 291-299.)] TJ ET
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0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Baker, Raymond. 2012. Outflows, Not Aid, Must be Curtailed to Fight Poverty. Huffington Post World. 12 January \(last accessed 17 January 2012\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James, Ilan Kelman and Sarah A.V. Lewis. 2011. Is �fear itself� the only thing we have to fear? Explorations of psychology in perceptions of the vulnerability of others. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2011-3: 89-104.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, James. 2011a. Climate-proofing development: corruption risks in adaptation infrastructure. Global Corruption Report 2011: Climate Change Item 5.3. Berlin: Transparency International.)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bello, Walden, Marissa De Guzman, Mary Lou Malig and Herbert Docena. 2005. The anti-development state: the political economy of permanent crisis in the Philippines. London: Zed Books.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Goncalves, Marilyne Pereira, Melissa Panjer, Theodore S. Greenberg and William B. Magrat. 2012. Justice for Forests Improving Criminal Justice Efforts to Combat Illegal Logging. Washington, DC: The World Bank.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI. 2011c. G20 Commits to Addressing Illicit Financial Flows, Links Tax Haven Secrecy to Poverty. Press Release. 4 November. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sulston, John. 2010. Ten questions science must answer: How do we ensure humanity survives and flourishes? Guardian G2 30 November \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
Q
q
15.000 15.052 577.500 761.948 re W n
q
26.250 777.000 555.000 0.000 re W n
Q
1.000 1.000 1.000 rg
26.250 60.052 555.000 716.948 re f
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 775.875 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Country)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 775.875 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Year)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 775.875 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Details)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 775.875 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 759.994 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 766.020 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Source)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 759.994 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 759.994 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 759.994 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 759.994 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 744.112 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 744.112 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 750.139 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(ENDANGERMENT)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 744.112 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 744.112 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 744.112 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 744.112 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 728.231 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 728.231 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 734.258 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1. Environmental degradation: bad and ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 728.231 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 718.376 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 728.231 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 718.376 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 728.231 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 718.376 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Over-exploiting environmental resources for )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 710.745 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(development, thereby augmenting environmental )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 703.114 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(hazards.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 728.231 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 697.088 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 716.016 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Bidwai, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 526.790 716.465 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
26.625 697.087 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 687.233 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 697.087 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 687.233 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 697.087 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 687.233 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Illegal logging, increasing flood/landslide hazards )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 679.601 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(plus the felled trees become another hazard when )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 671.970 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(swept away by flood waters.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 697.087 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 665.944 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 684.872 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Shamsie, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 536.003 685.321 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
26.625 665.944 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(United Kingdom)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 665.944 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 665.944 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Placing housing on river flood plains, often due to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 648.458 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(greed from developers seeking quick profit and local )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 640.826 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(authorities seeking quick tax revenues.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 665.944 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 634.800 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 656.089 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis and Kelman, )] TJ ET
BT 470.971 646.097 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 492.655 646.546 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(20)] TJ ET
26.625 634.800 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 624.945 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Japan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 634.800 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 624.945 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 634.800 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 624.945 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(114 new buildings, including 36 hotels, are deemed )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 617.314 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(to be of inadequate construction for the hazard faced.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 634.800 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 611.288 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 622.584 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 522.997 623.033 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(24)] TJ ET
26.625 611.288 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 601.433 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Germany)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 611.288 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 601.433 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 611.288 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 601.433 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Placing housing on river flood plains, especially )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 593.801 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(greedy local authorities seeking development.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 611.288 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 587.775 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 599.072 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Pierce, 2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 525.707 599.521 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(25)] TJ ET
26.625 587.775 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 587.775 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 587.775 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 587.775 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 571.894 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 571.894 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 577.920 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2. Discrimination: bad.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 571.894 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Spain)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 571.894 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 571.894 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 562.039 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Sub-standard living conditions for migrants )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 554.408 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(preventing them from enacting DRR.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 571.894 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 548.381 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 559.678 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lawrence, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 540.342 560.127 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(26)] TJ ET
26.625 548.381 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(United Kingdom)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 548.381 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 548.381 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Marginalised citizenship which exposes those )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 530.895 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(affected to hazards.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 548.381 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 521.918 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 538.526 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Hogan and Marandola, )] TJ ET
BT 470.971 528.534 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 492.655 528.983 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(27)] TJ ET
26.625 521.918 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(USA)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 521.918 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 521.918 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 512.063 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Disadvantaged living in physically vulnerable areas, )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 504.432 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(exposed by Hurricane Katrina.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 521.918 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 498.406 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 509.702 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Laska et al., 2006)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 547.937 510.151 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(28)] TJ ET
26.625 498.406 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Tonga)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 498.406 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 498.406 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 488.551 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Financial judgements denied the social need for )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 480.919 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(shelter, leaving the poorest without post-disaster )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 473.288 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(housing and thus made more vulnerable, serving )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 465.657 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(DRC.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 498.406 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
580.125 459.631 0.750 39.525 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 486.190 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 522.997 486.639 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(29)] TJ ET
26.625 459.631 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Dominican Republic)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 459.631 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(1982)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 459.631 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 449.776 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Exclusion from arable land increasing vulnerability to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 442.144 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(famine.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 459.631 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 436.118 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 447.415 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, 1982)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.336 447.864 Td /F6 8.7 Tf  [(30)] TJ ET
26.625 436.118 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 436.118 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1960s onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 436.118 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 426.263 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Townships as ghettos of discrimination, which places )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 418.632 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(them in hazardous locations and which inhibits local )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 411.000 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 436.118 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 404.974 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 423.902 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 543.043 424.351 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(31)] TJ ET
26.625 404.974 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 404.974 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 404.974 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 404.974 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 373.831 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 373.831 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 395.119 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(3. Displacement: bad.In all these cases, moving people from their land and communities increased their vulnerability by )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 387.488 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(resettling them in unfamiliar places without adequate support for DRR in the new location, especially where the people )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 379.857 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(experienced unusual for to them.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 373.831 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil and Guyana)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 373.831 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 373.831 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$17 billion Amazon dam project displaces tribes.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 373.831 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 347.367 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 363.976 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reuters AlertNet, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 354.433 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(32)] TJ ET
26.625 347.367 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Philippines)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 347.367 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2001)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 347.367 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 337.512 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One dam displaced 61,700 people.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 347.367 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 328.535 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 335.152 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Heijmans, 2001)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 538.704 335.601 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
26.625 328.535 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 328.535 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1959-1989)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 328.535 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 318.680 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(10 million people displaced by water projects.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 328.535 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 309.703 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 316.320 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, 1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 530.046 316.769 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(33)] TJ ET
26.625 309.703 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 309.703 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1956-1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 309.703 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 299.848 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(18.5 million people displaced by dams and mines.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 309.703 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
580.125 290.871 0.750 19.582 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 297.488 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Cernea, 1996)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 530.046 297.937 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(33)] TJ ET
26.625 290.871 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 290.871 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 290.871 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 290.871 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 274.990 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 274.990 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 281.016 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(IMPOVERISHMENT)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 274.990 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 274.990 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 274.990 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 274.990 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 259.109 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 259.109 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 265.135 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(4. Self-seeking expenditure: ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 259.109 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 259.109 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2009-2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 259.109 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 249.254 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Doubling of project costs implies misuse of funds )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 241.623 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(which could have been used for DRR or sustainability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 233.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(projects.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 259.109 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 227.965 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 246.893 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Donnelly, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 536.003 247.342 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
26.625 227.965 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Italy)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 227.965 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1945 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 227.965 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Less infrastructure in the south for more money spent.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 227.965 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
580.125 201.502 0.750 27.213 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 218.110 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden and Picci, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 208.567 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(35)] TJ ET
26.625 201.502 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 201.502 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 201.502 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 201.502 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 185.621 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 185.621 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 191.647 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(5. Denial of access to resources: bad and ugly.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 185.621 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 185.621 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1998)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 185.621 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 175.766 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Skewed access to productive land, affecting ability to )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 168.134 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(reduce vulnerability through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 185.621 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
580.125 162.108 0.750 24.262 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 173.405 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mustafa, 1998)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 532.757 173.854 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(36)] TJ ET
26.625 162.108 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tuvalu)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 162.108 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1941-1945)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 162.108 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 152.253 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Long-term depletion of crops due to World War 2 )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 144.622 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(airfields, affecting ability to reduce vulnerability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 136.991 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 162.108 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 130.964 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 149.892 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Telavi, 1983)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 524.079 150.341 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
26.625 130.964 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Martinique)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 130.964 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 138.960 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1635 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 130.964 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 226.961 121.109 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Unequal distribution of landholdings, affecting ability )] TJ ET
BT 226.961 113.478 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(to reduce vulnerability through reliable local food.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 130.964 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
580.125 107.452 0.750 24.263 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 470.971 118.749 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Jeffery, 1981)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 527.336 119.198 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(38)] TJ ET
26.625 107.452 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 107.452 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 107.452 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 107.452 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 76.308 0.750 31.894 re f
580.125 76.308 0.750 31.894 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 97.597 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(6. Corruption: bad.In all these cases, the money could have been used for DRR or vulnerability reduction measures, )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 89.966 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(especially in wider contexts of supporting local livelihoods and aiming for sustainable communities. Where noted, money lost )] TJ ET
BT 31.875 82.334 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(through corruption could have been used to increase the hazard resistance of infrastructure.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 76.308 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 31.875 66.453 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bangladesh)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 76.308 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 76.308 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Anti-graft official accepted US$14,000 bribe.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 76.308 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
580.125 60.427 0.750 16.631 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(AFP, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(39)] TJ ET
26.625 60.427 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Indonesia)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 60.427 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 60.427 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tax official took bribes of millions of US$ in gold.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 60.427 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 60.427 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Deutsch, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(40)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Local misuse of development funds in 47 counties.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Daily Nation, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(41)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bribes and theft are estimated at 8% of government spending.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pei, 2007)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Turkey)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1999)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Earthquake damage from corrupt construction control.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Lewis, 2008a)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(43)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.460 0.750 re f
134.085 791.625 88.001 0.750 re f
222.086 791.625 244.010 0.750 re f
466.096 791.625 114.779 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(7. Siphoning of public money: ugly.In all these cases, the money could have been used for DRR or vulnerability reduction measures, especially in wider contexts of supporting local livelihoods and aiming for sustainable communities.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Gabon)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$36 million embezzled.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ryan, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(44)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(President siphoned US$9 billion overseas.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Hirsch, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(45)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(President controls revenues from state industries.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harding, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(46)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2008)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The country�s illegal economy represents 50% of GDP.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kar, 2010)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(47)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2001-2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Government money was paid to a fictitious firm for contracts. Some of that was paid back.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Githongo, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(48)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Mexico)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(2000-2009)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit financial outflows of US$46.24 billion.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(GFI, 2011a)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Angola)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1993-2002)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(US$4.68 billion lost between 1993 and 2002.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Shaxson, 2011)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 107.835 0.750 re f
26.625 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Italy)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 88.751 0.750 re f
133.710 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(1945 onwards)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 244.760 0.750 re f
221.711 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Massive siphoning of development funding.)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 115.154 0.750 re f
465.721 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
580.125 791.625 0.750 0.750 re f
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Golden and Picci, 2005)] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(35)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 1: Environmental degradation)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Development affecting the environment may be initiated, perpetrated or permitted that places people at risk when they occupy that development. The risks may arise from environmental degradation or environmental modification that creates or augments hazards.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bidwai \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( describes India�s growth as having two negative sides: �persistent poverty, social bondage and economic servitude� and �sleaze and collusive business-politics relations that mock transparency, accountability, democratic policy-making and the public interest.� He notes that �what counts is privileged access to natural resources and the national commons, most critically land, which is at the core of the government�s discretionary powers�. Amongst other examples are �mining and metallurgical projects that blatantly violate environmental regulations; corporate land grabs in the guise of export promotion zones; the razing of virgin tropical rainforest to make way for opulent housing�. These actions have a tendency of exacerbating, even creating, flood, landslide, and drought hazards.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Pakistan)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In the floods of 2010, millions of people were affected by torrential monsoon rains and consequent floods. By August, entire villages had been washed away, 1,600 people had died, 2 million had been made homeless, and dissent was leading to political instability \(Shah, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(51)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. It was reported that �the timber mafia, which has a particularly strong hold on the areas now affected by flooding [is] one of the most powerful and ruthless organisations within Pakistan�engages in illegal logging, which is estimated to be worth billions of rupees each year� \(Shamsie, 2010, online; see also Ali et al., 2006\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(52)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. In addition to deforestation contributing to flooding, landslides, and soil erosion, illegally felled trees hidden in ravines were dislodged by floodwaters and destroyed bridges essential for access to flooded areas. Dams and retaining walls intended for flood control were possibly weakened as well which might have contributed to some of the inundation, although detailed investigations have not been carried out \(Shamsie, 2010; Sudmeier-Rieux, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(23)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(53)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 2: Discrimination)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ethnic, religious, gender or \(dis\)ability-based discrimination, for example, may lead to deprivation, victimisation, or the forced adoption of hazard-prone habitation. Being discriminated against also reduces the options available for individuals and communities to adopt DRR measures.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Nepal)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Nripal \(2008, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(54)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( writes:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In my studies of a few villages of Nepal, I found that vulnerability is a political issue. Culture is a response to politics. Before we talk about preparedness or coping mechanisms that cultures have adopted in different temporal and spatial settings� it is necessary to address the root causes of vulnerabilities�In the Dhadhing district of Nepal, ethnic groups like Chepangs live in very steep lands�studies have shown that they are very adaptive to those settings. But it is the policies of institutionalized discrimination�over about eight hundred years, that has forced them to live in steep slopes. They have adapted well to those harsh conditions� but that does not mean they are completely safe. Food insecurity and poverty still haunt them and they are the first victims of hazards like landslides. They are living in the edge of vulnerability, not because of their cultural inclination but because of institutionalized discrimination against them.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sudmeier-Rieux et al. \(2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(55)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( confirmed exactly this situation by comparing two villages in Nepal with landslide risk that is comparable, but with differing livelihoods and economic opportunities.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Sectors of underdevelopment, such as South African townships, are ghettos of discrimination and deprivation and are dynamos of concentrated vulnerability. Most are overcrowded and prone to disease, fire, storms and flooding while the inhabitants experience forced removal and displacement without alternative accommodation.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNHabitat \(2010, pp. 209-210\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(31)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( states:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In Durban, Cape Town )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(and Johannesburg, recurring social catastrophes \(especially fires and floods devastating entire communities\) are viewed by officials as �natural disasters� or faults caused by their low-income victims. Yet, they are clearly a product of asymmetric public policy choices that favour the wealthy at the expense of the poor. The poor are most exposed and vulnerable to disasters and disease�Horrific fires in Alexandra, Johannesburg, are a product of informal settlement layout, overcrowding, highly combustible building materials and inadequate strategies for fire prevention� the most effective prevention of such fires would be provision of affordable electric power to replace the fire hazard of paraffin lamps and candles.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Endangerment 3: Displacement)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Removal of habitation and people to make land available for other purposes, without compensation or alternative shelter, deprives families of accustomed livelihoods and exacerbates their vulnerability to natural hazards. Forced evictions are reported by Amnesty International \(2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(56)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( in places such as Kenya, Nigeria, Paraguay, Serbia and Zimbabwe. When deprived of familiar environments without support for learning about one�s new location, already vulnerable people can be subject to hazards with which they are unfamiliar.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One major cause of displacement is the construction of dams for hydro-electricity, with indigenous people particularly having their livelihoods devastated along with being threatened by extinction \(Survival International, 2010; World Commission on Dams, 2000\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(57)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(58)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Examples include Ethiopia, Kenya, Malaysia, Peru, and China. In such cases, vulnerability is increased because the new location is unfamiliar, traditional livelihoods and coping mechanisms have been disrupted and adequate support for long-term DRR is usually not available. These consequences result in the case studies below as well.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil and Guyana)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Brazil is to construct a series of dams on the River Madeira, one of which would be the third largest in the world, despite protests since the 1980s by Kayap� Indians and other tribes. More large dams are planned for northern Brazil and southern Guyana, including the Upper Mazaruni dam which was stopped after protests, but is likely to be revived \(Survival International, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(57)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. In January 2011, Brazil�s environment agency approved the commencement of a 240-hectare site clearance project for the Belo Monte dam in the Amazon, with a budget of US$17 billion and displacing numerous native tribes \(Reuters AlertNet, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(32)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Philippines)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Locally perceived as more disastrous than natural hazards, are governmental �development� projects for dams, irrigation, mining operations, plantations and recreation areas, all requiring conversion of prime agricultural land to industrial and commercial use \(see also Gaillard et al., 2007\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(59)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Local communities are often not consulted, but are displaced, losing their rights, livelihoods, and lands. Such projects, having immediate negative effects on local poor communities and known as �development aggression� \(Heijmans, 2001,p. 5\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, are considered as human-made disasters more difficult to cope with than with those of a typhoon. Typhoons are said to destroy crops, houses and infrastructure, but not to undermine the basis of people�s means of survival. Displacement deprives people of their land, the most crucial resource to sustain their livelihood. Government or private compensation is far below the amount needed to rebuild a livelihood elsewhere, and land is not made available \(Heijmans, 2001\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(2)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Epitomising the state of impoverishment, Washington DC based Global Financial Integrity issued two reports in the early months of 2011. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2000-2009)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(GFI, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( describes how much of the colossal amounts of money secreted offshore has resulted from the siphoning of funds from developing countries, further impoverishing those countries and social conditions within them, thereby perpetuating and augmenting vulnerability. An additional cause of globally continuing poverty is described in the second report, )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Transnational Crime in the Developing World)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( \(GFI, 2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(60)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, which notes a US$650 billion �global illicit flow of goods, guns, people, and natural resources� \(p. v\) that functions easily in conditions of underdevelopment, poor governance, and fragile states, conditions that its activities perpetuate and that preclude effective and adequately resourced DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 4: Self-seeking expenditure of public money)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Self-seeking expenditure manipulates funds, that otherwise could be applied to development, such as DRR work. Instead, these funds are put towards projects that benefit the manipulator or development expenditure is used as a vehicle for personal gain. Either process skews expenditure that could otherwise be applied towards raising the quality of life and reducing vulnerability for wider sectors of society or communities at large.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(While no guarantee exists that unsiphoned funds would be used for DRR, the fundamental principle is that public money ought to be used for public good. When that does not happen, self-seeking expenditure is epitomised. By denying the public the benefits from the expenditure of public money, vulnerability is necessarily created. Cases of abuse of entrusted power for personal gain leading to increased community vulnerability are given below as corruption and siphoning of public funds.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(South Africa)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Police are an inherent part of community resilience and are involved in some DRR activities, as well as in post-disaster response. Where police abuse the system or fail in their duties, vulnerability is augmented, partly because the police are not playing their expected role and partly because the populace will not trust the police to assist.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(During 2009 and 2010, three new police stations were constructed at Inanda, Ezakheni and Hebron. Inanda Police Station took six years to build, during which costs soared from a budgeted ZAR15.9 million to an actual cost of ZAR42.0 million. Ezakheni Police Station had an estimated cost of ZAR10.6 million that grew to an actual cost of ZAR23.9 million. Hebron Police Station began construction in June 2006 and was not complete at September 2010 when its budgeted cost of ZAR14.7 million had by then risen to ZAR18.6 million and was still increasing. According to Donnelly \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, �The average cost of consultants was 18% of a project�s budget, but in some projects it was as high as 25%�. Extended completion times and higher overall payments suggest contractor and consultant complicity.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Overall, for these three police stations at the time of reporting by Donnelly \(2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(34)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, ZAR84.5 million of public money had been spent on three contracts budgeted at a total of ZAR41.2 million � an overall expenditure of more than twice the budgeted cost. That misuse of public money draws resources directly away from DRR, and other community development concerns, not just through moving money away from the public good but also through the police apparently being complicit in that process. In this case of trade mispricing, six police stations, or their developmental equivalent, could have been provided for the ultimate actual cost of three \(Lewis, 2011b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(61)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. That would have contributed to reducing community vulnerability through policing while instilling trust in the police as part of building a resilient community.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Vietnam)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Climate change influences resilience to natural hazards, with climate change adaptation being part of DRR. In June 2012, three of four climate change research projects in Vietnam funded by the Danish International Development Agency \(DANIDA\),were stopped by the Danish Embassy due to fraudulent expenditure by Vietnamese participants. Out of the approximately US$3.45 million in aid for the projects, US$2.45 million had been distributed when US$550,000 was found to have been misused \(Talk Vietnam, 2012\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(62)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The projects comprised assessments of climate change impacts on land use and livelihoods, socio-economic development, estuarine ecosystems and the effects upon rice production of submergence and salinity. All these activities are part of DRR and link to social improvement, well-being and poverty reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 5: Denial of access to resources)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Some people�s actions, inadvertent or deliberate, have caused others to be, or to become, deprived of resources that either belonged to them or that were commonly available. Such actions may have been perpetrated in history, but their long-lasting consequences continue to be a part of present-day conditions, having imposed vulnerability, and may have come to be regarded as permanent, normal and acceptable.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Tuvalu)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(During World War 2 on Funafuti, the main island in what was then the Ellice Islands, and is now Tuvalu \(Telavi, 1983, p. 142\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(In the construction of the airfield a large portion of the land formerly used for growing )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(pulaka)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( and )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(taro)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( was covered up. The local people were later compensated yet they suffered an enduring loss. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Pulaka)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [( is no longer a staple food, although during the war it did not matter. The American occupation brought them more food � as well as cigarettes, soap and kerosene � more than they had ever had before. Many still think of that as the best time of their lives.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(For the outer island of Nanumea \(Telavi, 1983, p. 143\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(37)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(most damage done on the island was done by its defenders. The airfield took up one sixth of the land area, and to make it the Americans destroyed nearly half of the coconut trees, 22,000 out of 54,000. Moreover, efforts to replant that land have not been very successful. The coral is packed too hard for the trees to grow properly)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Reliable local food is reduced, decreasing self-sufficiency and augmenting vulnerability.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 6: Corruption)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The link between corruption and disasters is more pervasively invidious than its obvious after-the-fact effect manifesting in, for example, earthquake damage \(Ambraseys and Bilham, 2011; Lewis, 2008a; Chien, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(43)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(63)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(64)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. At one time, corruption was typically condoned as �usefully functional� or as grease for the wheels of bureaucracy, and more often ignored than investigated. That has been the case even though it deprives the poorest of what little money they have � by which poverty is exacerbated and, at higher social levels, it may keep undeserving elites in power \(Hoogvelt, 1976\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(65)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Now, it is recognised that the hierarchical greed within corruption, its spread and extent, and its scale, consequently distorts the economy, increasing costs of goods and services. As Johnston \(2009, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(66)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( notes, �The links between corruption and poverty affect both individuals and businesses, and they run in both directions: poverty invites corruption, while corruption deepens poverty.�)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The World Bank�s Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative concludes for developing countries that �The cross-border flow of the global proceeds from criminal activities, corruption, and tax evasion is estimated at between $1 trillion and $1.6 trillion per year� \(UN and World Bank, 2007, p. 1\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(67)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Using those figures, Baker et al. \(2008: online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(68)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( comments:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(This dwarfs foreign aid, which totalled about $50 billion a year through the 1990s and is about $100 billion today. So we have $50-100 billion of aid flowing into poor countries, and $500�800 billion of dirty money flowing out. In other words, for every dollar Western governments have been handing out across the top of the table, crooked Western banks, businesses and middlemen of various descriptions have been taking back up to ten dollars of illicit proceeds under the table)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Foreign aid includes DRR and other vulnerability reduction measures. If the �dirty money� were invested in the communities where the money came from, perhaps there would be no need for foreign aid to initiate and support DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(China)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(China�s corruption costs have been estimated as 8% of spending from 1996-2005 contributing �to China�s massive environmental degradation, deterioration in social services, and the rising costs of housing, health care, and education� \(Pei, 2007, p. 5\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(��Even a relatively low-level official can amass an illicit fortune in tens of millions of yuan� \(Pei, 2007, p. 2\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(42)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The destruction of so many schools in the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, which killed 75,000 people including 900 children in one school, was strongly suspected to have resulted from corruption in construction \(Lewis, 2008b\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(69)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The Chinese government states that it is battling corruption; for instance, �Chinese prosecutors investigated more than 240,000 embezzlement, bribery and other cases involving official corruption from 2003 to 2009�\(Forsythe, 2010, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(70)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Nonetheless, �corruption remains rife and is one of the most potent sources of public anger� \(Branigan, 2011, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(71)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F4 9.8 Tf  [(Impoverishment 7: Siphoning of public money)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The director of Global Financial Integrity \(GFI\), Raymond Baker, has described the development of offshore financial havens as �the ugliest chapter in global economic affairs since slavery� \(Shaxson, 2011, p. 158\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Diversion and siphoning of public money into private bank accounts, wherever they are held, is an aspect of corruption \(described above\), drawing money away from potential DRR activities. Inclusive of development funding, money is stolen and sent to private, offshore tax havens before it can be spent for other purposes, which could have included the public good such as for vulnerability reduction.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The fine distinction made here between corruption and the siphoning of public money is between illicit expenditure and direct theft. Both are practiced for private gain. As a driver of vulnerability at national levels, the siphoning of public money has no rival to the enormity of geographical extent and size of the sums involved.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(According to Dorling \(2010: 101\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(17)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, there is a:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(�trillion-dollar-a-year flow of illicit funds to rich nations using webs of financial trusts, nominee bank accounts, numerous methods to avoid tax, and simple mispricing�Traditional bribery and corruption within poor countries accounts for only 3% of this sum. Despite this, when corruption is considered it is almost always that kind of corruption and not the other 97%, the corruption of very rich Western bankers and businessmen \(and a handful of businesswomen\)�orchestrated from [London], from New York, and from a plethora of well-connected tax havens.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Approximately 50% of banking assets and 33% of foreign investment by multinational corporations are routed offshore through small island financial centres, estimated by the IMF as amounting overall to US$18 trillion, equivalent to one third of the world�s GDP \(Shaxson, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Providing secrecy, an escape from financial regulation and taxation elsewhere, not only small islands are involved. The United Kingdom has been identified by the IMF as an offshore jurisdiction \(Shaxson, 2011; OECD, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(72)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( with its government encouraging that status and further covert activity \(Murphy, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(73)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Illicit outflows mean that governments have less money to spend on development and sustainability activities \(Collier, 2008; Colvin, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(74)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(75)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. For example, before it could be spent on infrastructure and general construction, millions of dollars of international aid have been sent from some African countries to private external bank accounts, often in the countries of the origin of the aid \(Baker et al., 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(68)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Ndung�u \(2007, p. 3\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(76)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( asks about Africa:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How many Harvards could be established in this continent to create the critical mass of world-class engineers and scientists, and intellectual leaders needed to advance Africa�s development, expand industrial output and enhance employment creation in the era of knowledge from the half a trillion US dollars stored by a handful of Africans in save [sic] havens?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Meanwhile, GFI \(2011a\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( reports crime, corruption and trade mispricing�inclusive of kickbacks, bribes, embezzlement and other forms of official corruption�as leading to illicit outflows from developing countries of over US$1 trillion a year. Amongst countries with the highest cumulative illicit financial outflows between 2000 and 2008 were China at US$2.18 trillion, Russia at US$427 billion, Mexico at US$416 billon, Malaysia at US$291 billion, Venezuela at US$157 billion and Nigeria at US$130 billion \(GFI, 2011a\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(49)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Approximately US$854 billion is a conservative estimate of total illicit financial outflows from Africa, as it could possibly be �as high as US$1.8 trillion� \(Shaxson, 2011, p. 157\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(50)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ndikumana and Boyce \(2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( examined capital sent from 40 African countries between 1970 and 2004. They conclude that sub-Saharan Africa is a ��net creditor� to the rest of the world� \(p. 6\) because �Real capital flight over the 35-year period amounted to about $420 billion \(in 2004 dollars\) for the 40 countries as a whole� \(p. 6\). That amounts to over double these countries� combined external debt \(Ndikumana and Boyce, 2008\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. The difference between the assets and the liabilities is that �private external assets belong to a narrow, relatively wealthy stratum of its population, while public external debts are borne by the people through their governments� \(Ndikumana and Boyce, 2008, pp. 27-28; see also Ndikumana and Boyce, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(77)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(78)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(From 48 Least Developed Countries between 1990 and 2008, illicit flows�mainly to developed country banks and offshore financial centres�represented �a net resource transfer of about US$197 billion into the rest of the world \(mainly developed countries\)� \(UNDP, 2011, p. 14\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(79)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. If such funds were applied appropriately internally, then development, poverty alleviation, and DRR could receive significant boosts through domestic initiatives.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(India)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(One estimate asserts that �rich Indians have spirited abroad the equivalent of half of India�s GDP over six decades� \(Bidwai, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(22)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Another states that the total illegal outflows of cash from India�s independence in 1948 until 2008 would add up to at least US$462 billion with compound interest \(Kar, 2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(47)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. These sums may have been from private income sent overseas to avoid Indian taxation or siphoned from public funds. Either way, public money in India is being severely depleted by this activity. )] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In January 2011, after an intervention from India�s Supreme Court regarding illicit flows ending up in bank accounts overseas, the Indian government took steps to try to curtail the problem, citing that they had detected tax evasion worth US$3.3 billion over the previous 18 months \(Pasricha, 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(80)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( .)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Kenya)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(In August 2007, Rice \(2007, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(81)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( reported that \(see also Githongo, 2005\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(48)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The breathtaking extent of corruption perpetrated by the family of the former Kenyan leader Daniel Arap Moi was exposed�in a secret report that laid bare a web of shell companies, secret trusts and frontmen that his entourage used to funnel hundreds of millions of pounds into nearly 30 countries including Britain. The 110-page report�alleges that relatives and associates of Mr Moi siphoned off more than �1bn of government money�The assets accumulated included multimillion pound properties in London, New York and South Africa, as well as a 10,000-hectare ranch in Australia and bank accounts containing hundreds of millions of pounds. The report, commissioned by the Kenyan government, was submitted in 2004, but never acted upon.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F6 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(A report by the US ambassador to Tajikistan alleges that although the country experiences many disasters and is surrounded by difficult neighbours, the problems witnessed emerge internally. In particular, Tajikistan�s president, Emomali Rahmon \(Harding, 2010, online\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(46)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(runs the ex-Soviet republic�s economy for his own personal profit: �From the president down to the policeman on the street, government is characterized by cronyism and corruption.��Tajikistan�s sole industrial exports are aluminium and hydroelectricity. But most of the revenues from the �technically state-owned Tajik Aluminium Company \(Talco\) end up in a secretive offshore company controlled by the president�The state budget sees little of the income�.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Tajikistan has high disaster vulnerability and needs DRR, but funds that could be available disappear due to the leader�s corruption.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(Integrating DRR to avoid DRC)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Why so many underdeveloped countries remain underdeveloped, or why the extent and levels of poverty and vulnerability prevail, are questions that cannot be answered without considering the colossal sums that accrue in private offshore bank accounts. Corruption is cited as an impediment to development \(Collier, 2008, p. 66\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(74)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and �the biggest threat to developing economies� \(Colvin, 2011, online\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(75)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. These comments equally apply to the other behaviours presented above. To consider DRR should entail questioning these causes of persistent poverty and persistent vulnerability, in turn being the prime cause of disaster risk.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Notwithstanding similar recommendations made years earlier \(e.g. Hamza and Zetter, 1998; Lewis, 1999\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(82)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, recommendation 7.5 of the Global Assessment Report \(UNISDR, 2009\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( encouragingly expresses that �a set of governance arrangements is needed for disaster risk reduction, poverty reduction and climate change adaptation, which is capable of ensuring that risk considerations are factored into all development investments� \(p. 181\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(That, as far as it goes, is how it should be. The evidence cited in this paper indicates that much more is at stake. As well as development, there is contra-development. Restriction of UNISDR�s \(2009\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(5)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( recommendation 7.5 to only the three named sectors, and the suggestion that �development of a single governance framework for risk reduction would seem to offer opportunities for more effective policy implementation and for avoiding duplication and lack of coordination� \(p. 181\), indicate an approach too narrow for sufficient DRR when caused by the behaviours exemplified above.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP \(2010, p. 1\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( links vulnerability and disasters with governance:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Principles of good governance include broad participation, transparency, accountability, efficiency and responsiveness. All are as important for DRR as they are for development at large. A central criterion of good governance � namely, the principle of ensuring that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decisions about the allocation of resources affecting them � is essential for effective DRR and sustainable disaster recovery.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNDP \(2010\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
0.271 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( speaks to democratically elected governments as the implied norm and, as with the UNISDR reports, assumes an epitome of the good. Without acknowledging the reality of the bad and the ugly�that is, of mal-governance, greed, and incompetence amongst others�this document also paints over the cracks in its fa�ade. Why is it that �Many disaster-prone countries have not embraced mainstreaming DRR concerns into development practices as an underlying principle� \(UNDP, 2010, p. 2\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(83)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(? If it is shortages of money or political will, then the motives behind these superficial excuses have been amply demonstrated in this paper.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Documents produced by the United Nations are not the only sources of myopic visions of reality. Some academic documents also fail to go far enough. As one example, a paper jointly produced by 16 authors \(Wisner et al., 2011\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(84)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, searches for incentives to achieve political will for the successful implementation of DRR. Corrupt practises offer incentives of personal profit of a magnitude far outweighing any, at a personal level, that might be achieved by DRR � and require less work for their installation. The paper makes limited active mention of the scale of corruption in all of its forms or of details regarding other illicit depletions of funds.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Perhaps the greatest failing of top-down institutionalised DRR is that it has been, and continues to be, separated from the reality of its contexts, whereas it is those contexts that actively contribute to the causes of disasters. By separating DRR from other separated sectors of government, the causes of people�s vulnerability to disasters must prevail \(Lewis, 1999, pp. 5, 133, 134\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(10)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(The pervasive conditions of vulnerability cannot be allocated as the responsibility of one desk or department; they are the prerogative of all desks and departments for all kinds of business and activity, both policy and practice�Institutional and organisational separation is the greatest single impediment to the integration of development and disaster reduction�Vulnerability has to be reduced by strategic processes within development; not by the ad hoc application of services that commence only after disaster has occurred, or with the identification of, and attendance to, already �vulnerable groups�.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Since these words were written, along with much similar discourse before and after, disasters of colossal magnitude have continued to tax disaster practitioners in their post-event focus whilst vulnerability creation has proceeded apace. The task for DRR is to adopt a strategy inclusive of vulnerability and its causative processes. Those processes exemplified in this paper should be made targets for primary attention, not only by development aid but also by curtailing financial outflows \(Baker, 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(85)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Psychological issues, prevailing in any government�s task of assessing risk for others \(Lewis et al., 2011\))] TJ ET
0.267 0.267 0.267 rg
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(86)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( , may have to be overcome. How to evaluate the science and to respond to it in parallel with political and economic priorities presents all governments with similar difficulties. Accepting that disasters happen, as disasters always have, is politically easier than professing to be able to prevent them and running the risk of backlash due to carrying the blame for failure.How much is the interpretation of science influenced by what is considered to be acceptable?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(How much is science willing to rock the boat of governments? How much, also, are politicians of questionable ethics likely to want to change their expectations of positions of personal power?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Current focus on climate change adaptation, often at the expense of other DRR work, perhaps provides an opportunity to put the principles into practice to achieve ethical management. As massive amounts of money are directed towards climate change adaptation, irrespective of other DRR concerns, disciplined governance is required to ensure that funds are used in their entirety for the purpose for which they have been disbursed. The capital being \(mis\)appropriated by climate change work also includes intellectual capital, in terms of climate change knowledge focusing on their own internal knowledge-generating processes, and re-inventing what is known already, rather than embracing and building on wider sectors and learning from what other fields have long established.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(DRR, too, should not be seeking to isolate itself. Moving beyond its presently perceived remit from the institutionalised perspective, DRR should be informed about, and prepared to deal with, all topics that have a bearing upon vulnerability. Otherwise, DRR will not succeed \(Lewis, 2011a, p. 255\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(87)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(Corruption acts as an engine of poverty and vulnerability� in poorer countries, where along with weak governance institutions there is often endemic corruption�Where corruption heightens community vulnerability, it exacerbates the need for adaptation measures. In regions plagued by weak governance, adaptation responses themselves may be particularly prone to corruption.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(These interactions are shown in practice, when examining topics that are not always considered in DRR processes. For example, DRR should consider conflict, due to the inherent links between disaster risk and different levels of conflict. Corruption interacts with rebellion in complex ways, but can certainly feed grievances that lead to revolutions \(Le Billon, 2003\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(88)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. Consequently, DRR must deal with corruption, conflict and their interactions.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(As an example of interactions amongst numerous topics, a survey in Nairobi, Kenya \(Shisanya and Kyayesi, 2007\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(89)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, found that respondents, in general, tended to be less concerned about flooding, El-Ni�o rainfall and �global warming� than about corruption, unemployment, crime, street children, garbage, transport and poverty. For DRR-related matters, pollution of the Nairobi River and HIV/AIDS \(along with perceived immorality/promiscuity\) did feature prominently. For some, to engage in DRR means engaging in topics concerning them immediately in tandem with demonstrating the links amongst those topics. That will link day-to-day known interests with longer term, more diffuse interests.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The prominence, but not exclusivity, of corruption is particularly notable. Bello et al. \(2005\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(90)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, for instance, use the example of the Philippines to explain that the country�s problems and the resulting vulnerabilities would still exist even without corruption \(p. 244\):)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(While corruption definitely needs to be condemned, it is not the reason behind the country�s stagnation. A more adequate explanation lies in the state being subjugated by a succession of ruling elite factions to serve narrow interests instead of the larger goals of sustainable development and social justice.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Arguably, the second sentence perfectly defines a usual form of �corruption�. Rather than quibbling over definitions \(see also the earlier discussion under �Impoverishment 7: Siphoning of public money�\), Bello et al.�s \(2005\)90 point is well taken in exemplifying Table 1�s other three categories under �impoverishment�. DRR can happen despite corruption and can fail in corruption�s absence, but that does not mean that DRR and corruption are separable�as amply illustrated, for example, by the links between illegal logging and corruption \(Goncalves et al., 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(91)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( which, as demonstrated above for Pakistan then augments vulnerability.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Now that the G20 are committed to addressing illicit financial flows and have made explicit links between poverty and tax haven secrecy \(GFI, 2011c\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(92)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(, it is clear that DRR has for too long institutionally and conceptually separated itself from its social, economic and environmental contexts. DRR needs to integrate, not separate. Closer integration at global and international levels would hopefully encourage emulation at local levels. Sulston \(2010, online\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(93)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( offers ways of thinking of which DRR should take note:)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F5 9.8 Tf  [(We certainly can survive but we can only do it by thinking in a rather larger and more collective way�The natural sciences will need to work in conjunction with the social sciences and governance if we are to ensure we will address challenges in an effective way. The challenges lie not so much in the natural sciences but in the social sciences and governance.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(Can bad and ugly become good?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Taking on these recommendations and better integrating DRR with other process does not in itself guarantee a disaster-free world�although DRR in itself has never aimed to guarantee a disaster-free world. Risks will always exist and decision-makers, necessarily, must always balance varying residual risks. It is important to acknowledge those residual risks, especially to determine if disasters could nonetheless be avoided through targeted interventions that do not, in turn, cause further risk-related \(or other\) problems.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(What does this mean practically to achieve DRR in the face of DRC? Could a conceptual model be developed to guide vulnerable people and communities, along with higher-scale authorities and influences, to recognise, acknowledge and manage residual risks that remain after DRR has been integrated as much as feasible? Could such a conceptual model map out what needs to be done beyond fighting corruption or contra-development?)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(To a large degree, these conceptual models have long existed \(e.g. Lewis, 1984; O�Keefe et al., 1976\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(7)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(21)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [( and continue today to be reiterated, refined and interpreted from different angles \(e.g. Lewis et al., 2011; Wisner et al., 2012\))] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(19)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 783.983 Td /F4 8.7 Tf  [(86)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(. They frequently converge on the long-term, fundamental topics exemplified in this paper, especially with regards to changing culture and reallocating existing funds from processes that impede development�recognising endangerment and impoverishment as active, basic drivers of vulnerability and disaster risk.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(The practice from these conceptual discussions appears through examples of successful DRR and development. Certainly, DRR being established and advancing is an overall �good�, but in many instances that has happened largely regardless of vulnerability. Similarly, recognising and admitting some of the drivers of vulnerability is also a �good�. But recognition, however important, is only the first step. Massively �bad� and �ugly� drivers persist in practice as a pernicious and prevailing reality, triggered by negative aspects of human behaviour. If DRR is being accepted as or aimed to be a �culture�, �contra-culture� exists as does �contra-development�. At the moment, the contra-culture dominates, as shown by this paper�s examples.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Ways of working for DRR are required so that internationally conceived and jointly contributed official documents � and some academic texts � begin to absorb and respond to the realities. A first step would be recognising courageously committed investigative reporting that lays out and details the large scale of �the bad and the ugly�. Without tackling all vulnerability drivers � that are the roots of DRC � the conditions of DRC will continue to prevail over attempts at DRR.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 780.900 Td /F4 12.0 Tf  [(References)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Bronowski, Jacob. 1973. The Ascent of Man. London: British Broadcasting Corporation \(BBC\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Heijmans, Annelies. 2001. Vulnerability: A Matter of Perception. Working Paper 4. London: Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre \(now the Aon Benfield UCL Hazard Research Centre\), University College of London \(last accessed 31 December 2010\).)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 785.062 Td /F1 7.5 Tf  [(Reference Link)] TJ ET
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BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(Harwell, Emily E. 2000. Remote Sensibilities: Discourses of Technology and the Making of Indonesia�s Natural Disaster. Development and Change 31: 307-340.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR/SOPAC. 2009. Relationship between natural disasters and poverty: A Fiji case study. SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 678. Geneva: UNISDR and Suva: SOPAC.)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR. 2009. 2009 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva: UNISDR \(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction\).)] TJ ET
BT 0.000 782.981 Td /F1 9.8 Tf  [(UNISDR. 2005. Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. Geneva: UNISDR \(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction\).)] TJ ET
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BT 25.000 19.825 Td /F1 11.0 Tf  [(PLOS Currents Disasters)] TJ ET

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trailer
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