Abstract
Of 7,028 disorders with suspected Mendelian inheritance, 1,139 are recessive and have an established molecular basis. Although individually uncommon, Mendelian diseases collectively account for ~20% of infant mortality and ~18% of pediatric hospitalizations. Molecular diagnostic testing is currently available for only ~300 recessive disorders. Preconception screening, together with genetic counseling of carriers, has resulted in remarkable declines in the incidence of several severe recessive diseases including Tay-Sachs disease and cystic fibrosis. However, extension of preconception screening and molecular diagnostic testing to most recessive disease genes has hitherto been impractical. Recently, we reported a preconception carrier screen / molecular diagnostic test for 448 recessive childhood diseases. The current status of this test is reviewed here. Currently, this reports analytical validity of the comprehensive carrier test. As the clinical validity and clinical utility in the contexts described is ascertained, this article will be updated.
Funding Statement
This work was funded by grants from the Children’s Mercy Hospital, Beyond Batten Disease Foundation and NIH (RR016480 to F.D.S.), and by in-kind support from Illumina Inc., Life Technologies and British Airways PLC.Clinical Scenarios
The test is designed both for preconception carrier testing of couples wishing to start a family and for molecular diagnosis in children suspected of being affected by a recessive childhood disease. The published (research) version of the test included 448 childhood recessive illnesses with severe clinical manifestations1. A revised panel is undergoing clinical validation for use as a laboratory developed test (LDT) with an intention of being offered via a laboratory regulated by the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA). The clinical panel contains 595 childhood recessive diseases that are deemed to meet American College of Medical Genetics (ACMG) criteria for implementation of genetic testing for ultra-rare disorders2. Validation of analytic utility is being performed for the clinical scenarios detailed below prior to test offering. Initial validation of clinical utility and cost effectiveness will occur over the next year.
1. Preconception carrier testing for recessively inherited diseases of childhood.
Prepregnancy carrier testing is currently offered to couples desiring to start a family in order to provide individualized genetic counseling about risk of conceiving a child affected by a specific recessively inherited diseas34. The test performs preconception carrier testing for 595 recessive diseases simultaneously and three target populations are envisaged:
i. Couples undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures. Testing of couples, pretesting of sperm and egg donors and genetic counseling is of utility for reduction in risk of having an affected child. Given the economics of IVF, the incremental cost of carrier testing is unlikely to be a barrier to adoption5. Screening of sperm and oocyte donors has lower counseling burden than other clinical scenarios6. Further, the motivation of couples undergoing IVF procedures is anticipated to facilitate adoption. Since testing is performed before conception, some of the ethical concerns of carrier testing in other clinical scenarios are not relevant36. We are not aware of published studies of efficacy in this target population. It should be noted that knowledge of mutations in many of the 595 diseases is incomplete and testing is anticipated to reduce but not eliminate the risk of an affected child.
ii. Individuals and populations at high risk of recessive disorders. Examples include populations with genetic bottlenecks and / or higher rates of consanguinity. Ashkenazi Jewish populations, Arab populations, Amish populations and individuals with a family history of recessive diseases are examples. Preconception testing of motivated populations for recessive disease mutations, together with education and genetic counseling of carriers, can dramatically reduce disease incidence in a generation. The broad rationale is the success of testing north American Ashkenazi Jewish populations for carrier status of Tay-Sachs disease (TSD; Mendelian Inheritance in Man accession number OMIM# 272800)78910111213.
iii. General population testing. Given a recent report that we each harbor an average of 2.8 known recessive severe childhood disease mutations1, there is theoretical utility of voluntary carrier testing in general populations14. The broad rationale is the success of general population testing for carrier status of cystic fibrosis [CF, OMIM#219700]12131516171819. Practical clinical utility requires a). the cost to be low, b). provision of pre- and post-test genetic counseling (including delineation of the potential benefits and harms of carrier test results) and, c). protections for confidentiality, privacy and against stigmatization or discrimination. The ideal age for recessive disease screening is in early adulthood and before pregnancy. In the US, preconception carrier testing is hospital-based, whereas community-based testing has had success in Canada and Australia919202122. Community-based population testing has advantages over testing in a hospital setting, where information about carrier testing often is communicated during pregnancy or after the birth of an affected child919202122. Community-based carrier testing has had high uptake, without apparent stigma or discrimination and with substantial reductions in the frequencies of tested disorders919202122. Of note, the United Kingdom’s Human Genetics Commission recently reported that it found no specific social, ethical or legal principles that would make preconception genetic testing within the framework of a population screening program unacceptable14.
Preconception carrier testing for 595 diseases is anticipated to be offered initially as an LDT in late 2011 in the first two clinical scenarios. Expansion to general population testing is anticipated subsequently upon demonstration of cost effectiveness and validation of clinical utility in targeted populations. Revision of national policies for carrier testing is anticipated to be needed in response to next-generation-sequencing based multiplexed tests such as this.
2. Diagnostic testing in potentially affected children.
Diagnostic carrier testing is offered to affected children (via parents) suspected of having a recessively inherited disease in order to determine a definitive diagnosis and, thereby, individualize treatment and genetic counseling2. The broad rationale is that the test is an extension of conventional, univariate, serial molecular genetic testing. However, conventional approaches have severe limitations: Hundreds of recessive illnesses exist for which conventional molecular diagnosis is technically feasible but not available. They are too uncommon for commercially-viable conventional genetic testing or blocking patents exist. As a result, knowledge of mutation spectrum, genotype-phenotype relationships and allele frequencies in diseases without molecular diagnosis are rudimentary, inhibiting development of investigational new drugs. Of those for which molecular tests are available, many present as progressive multisystem disorders, requiring lengthy and costly differential diagnosis in a conventional genetic testing scenario, exhausting resources of patients, families and physicians. Thus, typically, <50% of patients undergoing conventional genetic testing receive a molecular diagnosis despite average testing cost per patient of >$10,000. Furthermore, serial univariate testing can take over a year, delaying timely intervention or counseling. It should be noted that our knowledge of mutations in many of the 595 diseases is incomplete and thus testing will not provide definitive diagnosis in all affected children. The scope of diagnostic use of the test is in differential diagnosis of affected children suspected of having one of the 595 diseases. The intended test use is in molecular diagnosis.
Test Description
The test is as described1, but has been modified for clinical testing as follows: Genomic DNA is prepared from patient EDTA-blood samples. 2.6 million nucleotides of target genomic regions, representing exons, intron boundaries and non-exonic mutation containing regions in 527 genes are enriched ~500-fold from the 3.16 billion nucleotide (nt) genome of each sample. Enrichment uses hybrid capture, in which tens of thousands of oligonucleotide probes capture 8,614 genomic DNA fragments, collectively comprising 592 disease genes. Patient DNA is fragmented, denatured and incubated with the oligonucleotides. The target-oligonucleotide hybrids are isolated by magnetic capture23. Next generation sequencing of the enriched targets is performed with Illumina HiSeq and TruSeq sequencing-by-synthesis, yielding ~3 billion nucleotides of sequence per sample, each ~125 nucleotides long. Sequences are aligned to the reference human genome uniquely, covering each target nucleotide ~150 times. Alignment uses the algorithm GSNAP2425, with parameters that have been optimized for clinical diagnostic use. Enrichment and sequencing are performed on multiplexed samples, which are disambiguated by molecular barcodes. ~1% of target nucleotides are not covered, while ~95% of target nucleotides have at least 16-fold sequence coverage. The majority of missed nucleotides are in high GC-content targets, are missed reproducibly, and are labelled as such. An automated bioinformatic decision tree is used to identify and genotype variations in the aligned sequences242627282930. Variants are retained if present in at least 8 sequences of quality score >25 and in exons with at least 16-fold sequence coverage24. Variants detected in >86% of reads are considered homozygous, while those present in 14-86% of reads are heterozygous. Variants are classified according to ACMG and other guidelines2183132333435, using literature knowledge as well as in silicotools, such as comparison with a variety of mutation and human variation databases, PolyPhen-2 and SIFT, to determine the pathogenicity of each variant. Pathogenic variants are assembled into genotypes and reported. For diagnostic testing, where variants are of uncertain significance, further evidence is sought, using additional in silico tools, literature evidence, clinico-pathologic correlation, confirmatory family studies or functional assays, as appropriate. In general, variant interpretation is identical to that performed using conventional molecular diagnostic assays with the exceptions that clinico-pathologic interpretation and masking of non-relevant genes are routine in diagnostic use of the assay and that ~90% of variant annotation and reporting is automated, facilitating interpretation and standardization of reporting. Reporting of variants differs in carrier testing of adults and diagnostic testing of children31. Carrier testing reports carrier status in all genes. Diagnostic testing reports positive and negative results in genes relevant to the clinical presentation. Diagnostic testing in children does not report carrier status in genes that are not relevant to presentation31. In a subset of cases, further communication between the laboratory director and ordering physician is necessary to guide additional studies and assist in interpretation.
Public Health Importance
Mendelian diseases collectively affect 13 million people in the US, accounting for ~20% of infant mortality and ~18% of pediatric hospitalizations3637383940.
Diagnostic testing in potentially affected children
Simultaneous diagnostic testing for 595 recessive childhood diseases is anticipated to have several public health impacts: 1). Extension of the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment benefits demonstrated for conventional genetic testing to hundreds of recessive diseases for which testing is not available today; 2). Reduction in time-to-diagnosis, particularly in illnesses where the differential diagnosis is broad and the conventional approach is serial univariate testing. Serial univariate testing can take over a year, delaying timely intervention or counseling. The initial turnaround time of the test will be 4 weeks. 3). Reduction in cost of diagnosis. The average cost per patient of serial univariate molecular diagnostic testing is ~$10,000 at our institution. The test is anticipated to cost ~$600. 4). Increased rate of definitive molecular diagnosis. Less than 50% of patients undergoing serial univariate molecular diagnostic testing receive a molecular diagnosis. This is anticipated to increase with test use, particularly in illnesses where the differential diagnosis is broad, such as mitochondrial myopathies or intellectual disability. Timely diagnosis of affected individuals has several potential benefits:
1. Prevention of death or markedly diminished disease severity where curative treatments are available. Quite a large number of recessive diseases have specific therapies. Neonatal diagnosis and treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and congenital hypothyroidism prevent severe intellectual disability. Likewise, death is prevented in certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), medium chain acyl-coA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD), and galactosemia (OMIM #230400).
2. Genetic counseling of patients and families about risks for relatives and in additional offspring.
3. Improvement in quality of life in disorders where treatments are ameliorative. While many recessive diseases lack curative treatments, timely diagnosis nevertheless allows specific interventions that can substantially improve quality of life. Such interventions may slow disease progression, lessen symptoms, prevent complications or improve function in affected organ systems.
4. Substantial psychosocial benefits with respect to anxiety, self-image, uncertainty and lifestyle decisions.
5. Multiplexed testing allows rule-out of differential diagnoses, decreasing unnecessary treatments.
Use of the research version of the test revealed that 27% of literature mutations are common polymorphisms or misannotated1. Thus, it is critical to establish a clinical grade mutation database for recessive illnesses. Implementation of the test for diagnosis in affected children will, with time, improve the quality and quantity of annotated mutations, particularly for diseases that for which no molecular test is available currently.
In addition, test results have a cumulative potential to inform an understanding of disease mechanisms. In each individual with a Mendelian disorder, the specific mutations impact the age of onset, disease severity, rates of progression, distribution of affected organs, complications, pleiotropy and outcomes. Only in diseases for which molecular diagnosis is undertaken can such knowledge be accumulated. A broad understanding of genotype-phenotype relationships can enable individualized care of patients with recessive diseases. This can potentially include individualized treatment intensity and prediction of disease progression, severity and likely complications. Thus, in the long term, the test, when performed in a research setting, can allow identification of genotype-phenotype relationships that allow conveyance of individualized diagnostic information.
Initial experience with the test has revealed the existence of novel modifier mutations and pleiotropy in patients with recessive illnesses (Kingsmore et al., submitted). Only through multiplexed molecular testing can such knowledge be accumulated. A broad understanding of modifier genes can further enable individualized care of patients with recessive diseases. Thus, in the long term, the test, when performed in a research setting, can allow identification of modifier genes that allow conveyance of individualized diagnostic information.
Finally, timely molecular diagnosis can allow intervention before organ decompensation, when treatment is likely to alter outcomes. Currently, study of new therapies for rare disorders are hampered by diagnosis after organ damage and low rates of ascertainment. Timely diagnosis can permit regional referral of affected individuals for specialized treatment.
It should be noted that substantiation of the potential public health impacts in prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of recessive childhood illnesses is needed. Such assessments should include measurement of cost effectiveness including costs of follow up of ambiguous test results and counseling.
Published Reviews, Recommendations and Guidelines
Systematic evidence reviews
The emerging use of targeted sequencing of panels of genes, whole exome sequencing and whole genome sequencing for molecular diagnosis of Mendelian diseases was recently reviewed45.
Recommendations by independent group
Currently none.
Guidelines by professional groups
The United Kingdom’s Human Genetics Commission recently reported guidance on preconception genetic testing within the framework of a population screening program14.
Evidence Overview
Analytic Validity:
The 437 genes responsible for 448 childhood recessive diseases are listed in Table 1. Using genotyping cut-offs of 14% and 86% to differentiate homozygotes and heterozygotes and >20X nucleotide coverage and >10 reads of quality >20 to call a variant, the accuracy of the test for SNP genotyping was 98.8%, analytic sensitivity was 94.9% and analytic specificity was 99.99% for 92,106 SNPs in 26 samples genotyped both by high density arrays and the test1. The positive predictive value (PPV) of the test for SNP genotyping was 99.96% and negative predictive value was 98.5%, as ascertained by array hybridization1. As sequence depth increased from 0.7 to 2.7GB, test sensitivity increased from 93.9% to 95.6%, whereas PPV remained ~100%. Area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) of the test for 92,106 SNP genotypes in 26 samples, when compared with array hybridization, was 0.99 when the number and % reads calling a SNP was varied.
For known substitution, indel, splicing, gross deletion and regulatory alleles in 76 samples, analytic sensitivity was 100% (113 of 113 known alleles). The higher sensitivity for detection of known mutations reflected manual curation. The twenty known indels were confirmed by PCR and Sanger sequencing. Of note, substitutions, indels, splicing mutations and gross deletions account for the vast majority (96%) of annotated mutations27.
Unexpectedly, 14 of 113 literature-annotated disease mutations were either incorrect or incomplete. PCR and Sanger sequencing confirmed that the 14 variants and genotypes called by the test were correct1.
Gross deletions were detected both by perfect alignment to mutant junction reference sequences and by local decreases in normalized coverage (normalized to total sequence generated). Eleven of eleven gross deletion mutations for which boundaries had been defined were identified1. Further analytic validation of ability to detect and genotype gross deletions, gross insertions and complex rearrangements is required.
It should be noted that the clinical version of the test will feature several improvements that are anticipated to improve analytic sensitivity and specificity. These are: 1). Increased depth of sequencing to 3 GB per sample; 2). Automation of the sequencing library preparation and target enrichment; 3). Re-design of the target enrichment oligonucleotides; 4). Change in the variant detection parameters to >16X nucleotide coverage and >6 reads of quality >25 to call a variant; 5). Further refinement of alignment parameters to prevent variant detection solely at the ends of reads; 6). Increased library size to reduce overlap redundancy; 7). Improved sequencing-by-synthesis chemistry (TruSeq); 8). Improved HiSeq instrument specification. Repetition of analytic validation is ongoing in a CLIA-compliant laboratory setting.
Clinical Validity
There are no published systematic evidence reviews of test accuracy, reliability or predictive value in a clinical setting. Experience is being garnered with the use of whole exome or whole genome sequencing for molecular diagnosis of Mendelian diseases and was recently reviewed.
Clinical Utility
There are no published systematic evidence reviews or published clinical trials. Published experience was in a research setting and was not blinded to sample diagnosis1. Test development and assessment of analytic and clinical validity and utility are ongoing.
Links
https://www.beyondbatten.org/
https://www.ncgr.org/preventing-rare-genetic-diseases
https://hematite.ncgr.org/
www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/130.full
https://www.npr.org/2011/01/13/132908098/new-gene-test-screens-nearly-500-childhood-diseases
Last updated: March 18, 2011
Table 1
| OMIM# | NAME | GENE |
| 102700 | SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY, AR, T CELL-NEGATIVE, | ADA |
| 102770 | MYOADENYLATE DEAMINASE DEFICIENCY, MYOPATHY DUE TO | AMPD1 |
| 105830 | ANGELMAN SYNDROME AS | MECP2 |
| 107400 | PROTEASE INHIBITOR 1; PI | SERPINA1 |
| 124000 | MITOCHONDRIAL COMPLEX III DEFICIENCY | BCS1L |
| 124000 | MITOCHONDRIAL COMPLEX III DEFICIENCY | UQCRB |
| 124000 | MITOCHONDRIAL COMPLEX III DEFICIENCY | UQCRQ |
| 133540 | COCKAYNE SYNDROME, B; CSB | ERCC6 |
| 141800 | HEMOGLOBIN–ALPHA LOCUS 1; HBA1 | HBA1 |
| 141900 | HEMOGLOBIN–BETA LOCUS; HBB | HBB |
| 145900 | HYPERTROPHIC NEUROPATHY OF DEJERINE-SOTTAS. CMT3, CMT4F | EGR2 |
| 145900 | HYPERTROPHIC NEUROPATHY OF DEJERINE-SOTTAS. CMT3, CMT4F | MPZ |
| 145900 | HYPERTROPHIC NEUROPATHY OF DEJERINE-SOTTAS. CMT3, CMT4F | PMP22 |
| 145900 | HYPERTROPHIC NEUROPATHY OF DEJERINE-SOTTAS. CMT3, CMT4F | PRX |
| 188055 | THROMBOPHILIA DUE TO ACTIVATED PROTEIN C RESISTANCE | F5 |
| 190685 | DOWN SYNDROME | GATA1 |
| 200100 | ABETALIPOPROTEINEMIA; ABL | MTTP |
| 200990 | ACROCALLOSAL SYNDROME; ACLS | GLI3 |
| 201000 | CARPENTER SYNDROME | RAB23 |
| 201450 | ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE, MEDIUM-CHAIN, DEFICIENCY OF | ACADM |
| 201460 | ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE, LONG-CHAIN, DEFICIENCY OF | ACADL |
| 201470 | ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE, SHORT-CHAIN, DEFICIENCY OF | ACADS |
| 201475 | ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE, VERY LONG-CHAIN, DEFICIENCY OF | ACADVL |
| 201710 | LIPOID CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA | CYP11A1 |
| 201710 | LIPOID CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA | STAR |
| 201910 | CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA, 21-HYDROXYLASE DEFICIENCY | CYP21A2 |
| 202400 | AFIBRINOGENEMIA, CONGENITAL | FGA |
| 202400 | AFIBRINOGENEMIA, CONGENITAL | FGB |
| 202400 | AFIBRINOGENEMIA, CONGENITAL | FGG |
| 203500 | ALKAPTONURIA | HGD |
| 203700 | ALPERS DIFFUSE CEREBRAL DEGENERATION WITH HEPATIC CIRRHOSIS | POLG |
| 203780 | ALPORT SYNDROME, AR | COL4A3 |
| 203780 | ALPORT SYNDROME, AR | COL4A4 |
| 203800 | ALSTROM SYNDROME; ALMS | ALMS1 |
| 204200 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 3; CLN3 | CLN3 |
| 204500 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 2; CLN2 | TPP1 |
| 205100 | AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS 2, JUVENILE; ALS2 | ALS2 |
| 206700 | ANIRIDIA, CEREBELLAR ATAXIA, AND MENTAL DEFICIENCY | PAX6 |
| 207410 | ANTLEY-BIXLER SYNDROME; ABS | FGFR2 |
| 207900 | ARGININOSUCCINIC ACIDURIA | ASL |
| 208000 | ARTERIAL CALCIFICATION, GENERALIZED, OF INFANCY; GACI | ENPP1 |
| 208085 | ARTHROGRYPOSIS, RENAL DYSFUNCTION, AND CHOLESTASIS | VPS33B |
| 208150 | FETAL AKINESIA DEATION SEQUENCE; FADS | RAPSN |
| 208400 | ASPARTYLGLUCOSAMINURIA | AGA |
| 208540 | RENAL-HEPATIC-PANCREATIC DYSPLASIA; RHPD | NPHP3 |
| 208900 | ATAXIA-TELANGIECTASIA; AT | ATM |
| 208920 | EARLY-ONSET ATAXIA WITH OCULOMOTOR APRAXIA AND HYPOALBUMINEMIA | APTX |
| 210210 | 3-METHYLCROTONYL-CoA CARBOXYLASE 2 DEFICIENCY | MCCC2 |
| 210600 | SECKEL SYNDROME 1 | ATR |
| 210900 | BLOOM SYNDROME; BLM | BLM |
| 211600 | CHOLESTASIS, PROGRESSIVE FAMILIAL INTRAHEPATIC 1; PFIC1 | ATP8B1 |
| 211750 | C SYNDROME | CD96 |
| 212065 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Ia; CDG1A | PMM2 |
| 212066 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, IIa; CDG2A | MGAT2 |
| 212720 | MARTSOLF SYNDROME | RAB3GAP2 |
| 213700 | CEREBROTENDINOUS XANTHOMATOSIS | CYP27A1 |
| 214150 | CEREBROOCULOFACIOSKELETAL SYNDROME 1; COFS1 | ERCC6 |
| 214450 | GRISCELLI SYNDROME, 1; GS1 | MYO5A |
| 214500 | CHEDIAK-HIGASHI SYNDROME; CHS | LYST |
| 214950 | BILE ACID SYNTHESIS DEFECT, CONGENITAL, 4 | AMACR |
| 215045 | CHONDRODYSPLASIA, BLOMSTRAND ; BOCD | PTH1R |
| 215100 | RHIZOMELIC CHONDRODYSPLASIA PUNCTATA, 1; RCDP1 | PEX7 |
| 215140 | HYDROPS-ECTOPIC CALCIFICATION-MOTH-EATEN SKELETAL DYSPLASIA | LBR |
| 215150 | OTOSPONDYLOMEGAEPIPHYSEAL DYSPLASIA; OSMED | COL11A2 |
| 215150 | OTOSPONDYLOMEGAEPIPHYSEAL DYSPLASIA; OSMED | COL2A1 |
| 215600 | CIRRHOSIS, FAMILIAL | KRT18 |
| 215600 | CIRRHOSIS, FAMILIAL | KRT8 |
| 215700 | CITRULLINEMIA, CLASSIC | ASS1 |
| 216400 | COCKAYNE SYNDROME, A; CSA | ERCC8 |
| 216550 | COHEN SYNDROME; COH1 | VPS13B |
| 217090 | PLASMINOGEN DEFICIENCY, I | PLG |
| 217400 | CORNEAL DYSTROPHY AND PERCEPTIVE DEAFNESS | SLC4A11 |
| 218000 | AGENESIS OF THE CORPUS CALLOSUM WITH PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; ACCPN | SLC12A6 |
| 219000 | FRASER SYNDROME | FRAS1 |
| 219000 | FRASER SYNDROME | FREM2 |
| 219100 | CUTIS LAXA, AR, I | EFEMP2 |
| 219100 | CUTIS LAXA, AR, I | FBLN5 |
| 219200 | CUTIS LAXA, AR, II | ATP6V0A2 |
| 219700 | CYSTIC FIBROSIS; CF | CFTR |
| 219750 | CYSTINOSIS, ADULT NONNEPHROPATHIC | CTNS |
| 219800 | CYSTINOSIS, NEPHROPATHIC; CTNS | CTNS |
| 219900 | CYSTINOSIS, LATE-ONSET JUVENILE OR ADOLESCENT NEPHROPATHIC | CTNS |
| 220111 | LEIGH SYNDROME, FRENCH-CANADIAN ; LSFC | LRPPRC |
| 220290 | DEAFNESS, AR 1A | GJB2 |
| 220400 | JERVELL AND LANGE-NIELSEN SYNDROME 1; JLNS1 | KCNQ1 |
| 222448 | DONNAI-BARROW SYNDROME | LRP2 |
| 222600 | DIASTROPHIC DYSPLASIA | SLC26A2 |
| 223900 | NEUROPATHY, HEREDITARY SENSORY AND AUTONOMIC, III; HSAN3 | IKBKAP |
| 224050 | CEREBELLAR HYPOPLASIA AND MENTAL RETARDATION | VLDLR |
| 224410 | DYSSEGMENTAL DYSPLASIA, SILVERMAN-HANDMAKER ; DDSH | HSPG2 |
| 225320 | EHLERS-DANLOS SYNDROME, AR, CARDIAC VALVULAR | COL1A2 |
| 225410 | EHLERS-DANLOS SYNDROME, VII, AR | ADAMTS2 |
| 225750 | AICARDI-GOUTIERES SYNDROME 1; AGS1 | TREX1 |
| 225753 | PONTOCEREBELLAR HYPOPLASIA 4; PCH4 | TSEN54 |
| 226600 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA DYSTROPHICA, AR; RDEB | COL7A1 |
| 226650 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, NON-HERLITZ | COL17A1 |
| 226650 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, NON-HERLITZ | ITGB4 |
| 226650 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, NON-HERLITZ | LAMA3 |
| 226650 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, NON-HERLITZ | LAMB3 |
| 226650 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, NON-HERLITZ | LAMC2 |
| 226670 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA SIMPLEX WITH MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY | PLEC1 |
| 226700 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, HERLITZ | LAMA3 |
| 226700 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, HERLITZ | LAMB3 |
| 226700 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, JUNCTIONAL, HERLITZ | LAMC2 |
| 226730 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA JUNCTIONALIS WITH PYLORIC ATRESIA | ITGA6 |
| 226730 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA JUNCTIONALIS WITH PYLORIC ATRESIA | ITGB4 |
| 226980 | EPIPHYSEAL DYSPLASIA, MULTIPLE, WITH EARLY-ONSET DIABETES MELLITUS | EIF2AK3 |
| 228600 | FIBROMATOSIS, JUVENILE HYALINE | ANTXR2 |
| 228930 | FIBULAR APLASIA OR HYPOPLASIA | WNT7A |
| 229200 | BRITTLE CORNEA SYNDROME; BCS | ZNF469 |
| 229600 | FRUCTOSE INTOLERANCE, HEREDITARY | ALDOB |
| 230000 | FUCOSIDOSIS | FUCA1 |
| 230400 | GALACTOSEMIA | GALT |
| 230500 | GM1-GANGLIOSIDOSIS, I | GLB1 |
| 230600 | GM1-GANGLIOSIDOSIS, II | GLB1 |
| 230800 | GAUCHER DISEASE, I | GBA |
| 230900 | GAUCHER DISEASE, II | GBA |
| 231000 | GAUCHER DISEASE, III | GBA |
| 231050 | GELEOPHYSIC DYSPLASIA | ADAMTSL2 |
| 231530 | 3-HYDROXYACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY | HADH |
| 231550 | ACHALASIA-ADDISONIANISM-ALACRIMA SYNDROME; AAA | AAAS |
| 231670 | GLUTARIC ACIDEMIA I | GCDH |
| 231680 | MULTIPLE ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY; MADD | ETFA |
| 231680 | MULTIPLE ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY; MADD | ETFB |
| 231680 | MULTIPLE ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY; MADD | ETFDH |
| 232200 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE I | G6PC3 |
| 232220 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE Ib | SLC37A4 |
| 232240 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE Ic | SLC37A4 |
| 232300 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE II | GAA |
| 232400 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE III | AGL |
| 232500 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE IV | GBE1 |
| 235200 | HEMOCHROMATOSIS; HFE | HFE |
| 235200 | HEMOCHROMATOSIS; HFE | HFE2 |
| 235550 | HEPATIC VENOOCCLUSIVE DISEASE WITH IMMUNODEFICIENCY; VODI | SP110 |
| 236200 | HOMOCYSTINURIA | CBS |
| 236250 | HOMOCYSTINURIA DUE TO DEFICIENCY OF METHYLENETETRAHYDROFOLATE | MTHFR |
| 236490 | HYALINOSIS, INFANTILE SYSTEMIC | ANTXR2 |
| 236670 | WALKER-WARBURG SYNDROME; WWS | POMT1 |
| 236670 | WALKER-WARBURG SYNDROME; WWS | POMT2 |
| 236680 | HYDROLETHALUS SYNDROME 1 | HYLS1 |
| 237300 | CARBAMOYL PHOSPHATE SYNTHETASE I DEFICIENCY, HYPERAMMONEMIA | CPS1 |
| 237310 | N-ACETYLGLUTAMATE SYNTHASE DEFICIENCY | NAGS |
| 238970 | HYPERORNITHINEMIA-HYPERAMMONEMIA-HOMOCITRULLINURIA SYNDROME | SLC25A15 |
| 239000 | PAGET DISEASE, JUVENILE | TNFRSF11B |
| 240300 | AUTOIMMUNE POLYENDOCRINE SYNDROME, I; APS1 | AIRE |
| 241200 | BARTTER SYNDROME, ANTENATAL, 2 | KCNJ1 |
| 241410 | HYPOPARATHYROIDISM-RETARDATION-DYSMORPHISM SYNDROME; HRD | TBCE |
| 241510 | HYPOPHOSPHATASIA, CHILDHOOD | ALPL |
| 241520 | HYPOPHOSPHATEMIC RICKETS, AR | DMP1 |
| 241550 | HYPOPLASTIC LEFT HEART SYNDROME | GJA1 |
| 242300 | ICHTHYOSIS, LAMELLAR, 1; LI1 | TGM1 |
| 242500 | ICHTHYOSIS CONGENITA, HARLEQUIN FETUS | ABCA12 |
| 242860 | IMMUNODEFICIENCY-CENTROMERIC INSTABILITY-FACIAL ANOMALIES SYNDROME | DNMT3B |
| 243500 | ISOVALERIC ACIDEMIA; IVA | IVD |
| 243800 | JOHANSON-BLIZZARD SYNDROME; JBS | UBR1 |
| 244460 | KENNY-CAFFEY SYNDROME, 1; KCS | TBCE |
| 245200 | KRABBE DISEASE | GALC |
| 245349 | PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE E3-BINDING PROTEIN DEFICIENCY | PDHX |
| 245400 | LACTIC ACIDOSIS, FATAL INFANTILE | SUCLG1 |
| 245660 | LARYNGOONYCHOCUTANEOUS SYNDROME; LOCS | LAMA3 |
| 246200 | DONOHUE SYNDROME | INSR |
| 246450 | 3-HYDROXY-3-METHYLGLUTARYL-CoA LYASE DEFICIENCY | HMGCL |
| 248190 | HYPOMAGNESEMIA, RENAL, WITH OCULAR INVOLVEMENT | CLDN19 |
| 248500 | MANNOSIDOSIS, ALPHA B, LYSOSOMAL | MAN2B1 |
| 248600 | MAPLE SYRUP URINE DISEASE Ia | BCKDHA |
| 248600 | MAPLE SYRUP URINE DISEASE, CLASSIC, IB | BCKDHB |
| 248600 | MAPLE SYRUP URINE DISEASE III | DLD |
| 248800 | Marinesco-Sjogren Syndrome | SIL1 |
| 249000 | MECKEL SYNDROME, 1; MKS1 | MKS1 |
| 249100 | FAMILIAL MEDITERRANEAN FEVER; FMF | MEFV |
| 249900 | METACHROMATIC LEUKODYSTROPHY DUE TO SAPOSIN B DEFICIENCY | PSAP |
| 250100 | METACHROMATIC LEUKODYSTROPHY | ARSA |
| 250250 | CARTILAGE-HAIR HYPOPLASIA; CHH | RMRP |
| 250620 | BETA-HYDROXYISOBUTYRYL CoA DEACYLASE, DEFICIENCY OF | HIBCH |
| 250950 | 3-METHYLGLUTACONIC ACIDURIA, I | AUH |
| 251000 | METHYLMALONIC ACIDURIA DUE TO METHYLMALONYL-CoA MUTASE DEFICIENCY | MUT |
| 251110 | METHYLMALONIC ACIDURIA, cblB | MMAB |
| 251260 | NIJMEGEN BREAKAGE SYNDROME | NBN |
| 251880 | MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DEPLETION SYNDROME, HEPATOCEREBRAL | C10ORF2 |
| 251880 | MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DEPLETION SYNDROME, HEPATOCEREBRAL | DGUOK |
| 251880 | MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DEPLETION SYNDROME, HEPATOCEREBRAL | MPV17 |
| 252150 | MOLYBDENUM COFACTOR DEFICIENCY | MOCS1 |
| 252150 | MOLYBDENUM COFACTOR DEFICIENCY | MOCS2 |
| 252500 | MUCOLIPIDOSIS II ALPHA/BETA | GNPTAB |
| 252600 | MUCOLIPIDOSIS III ALPHA/BETA | GNPTAB |
| 252650 | MUCOLIPIDOSIS IV | MCOLN1 |
| 252900 | MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS IIIA | SGSH |
| 252930 | MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS IIIC | HGSNAT |
| 253200 | MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS VI | ARSB |
| 253220 | MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS VII | GUSB |
| 253230 | MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS VIII | GNS |
| 253250 | MULIBREY NANISM | TRIM37 |
| 253260 | BIOTINIDASE DEFICIENCY | BTD |
| 253280 | MUSCLE-EYE-BRAIN DISEASE; MEB | FKRP |
| 253280 | MUSCLE-EYE-BRAIN DISEASE; MEB | POMGNT1 |
| 253290 | MULTIPLE PTERYGIUM SYNDROME, LETHAL | CHRNA1 |
| 253290 | MULTIPLE PTERYGIUM SYNDROME, LETHAL | CHRND |
| 253290 | MULTIPLE PTERYGIUM SYNDROME, LETHAL | CHRNG |
| 253300 | SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, I; SMA1 | SMN1 |
| 253310 | LETHAL CONGENITAL CONTRACTURE SYNDROME 1; LCCS1 | GLE1 |
| 253400 | SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, III; SMA3 | SMN1 |
| 253550 | SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, II; SMA2 | SMN1 |
| 253800 | FUKUYAMA CONGENITAL MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY; FCMD | FKTN |
| 254780 | MYOCLONIC EPILEPSY OF LAFORA | EPM2A |
| 254780 | MYOCLONIC EPILEPSY OF LAFORA | NHLRC1 |
| 254800 | MYOCLONIC EPILEPSY OF UNVERRICHT AND LUNDBORG | CSTB |
| 255110 | CARNITINE PALMITOYLTRANSFERASE II DEFICIENCY, LATE-ONSET | CPT2 |
| 255120 | CARNITINE PALMITOYLTRANSFERASE I DEFICIENCY | CPT1A |
| 255960 | MYXOMA, INTRACARDIAC | PRKAR1A |
| 256030 | NEMALINE MYOPATHY 2; NEM2 | NEB |
| 256050 | ATELOSTEOGENESIS, II; AOII | SLC26A2 |
| 256100 | NEPHRONOPHTHISIS 1; NPHP1 | NPHP1 |
| 256300 | NEPHROSIS 1, CONGENITAL, FINNISH ; NPHS1 | NPHS1 |
| 256370 | NEPHROTIC SYNDROME, EARLY-ONSET, WITH DIFFUSE MESANGIAL SCLEROSIS | WT1 |
| 256550 | NEURAMINIDASE DEFICIENCY | NEU1 |
| 256600 | NEUROAXONAL DYSTROPHY, INFANTILE; INAD1 | PLA2G6 |
| 256710 | ELEJALDE DISEASE | MYO5A |
| 256730 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 1; CLN1 | PPT1 |
| 256731 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 5; CLN5 | CLN5 |
| 256800 | INSENSITIVITY TO PAIN, CONGENITAL, WITH ANHIDROSIS; CIPA | NTRK1 |
| 256810 | NAVAJO NEUROHEPATOPATHY; NN | MPV17 |
| 257200 | NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE, A | SMPD1 |
| 257220 | NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE, C1; NPC1 | NPC1 |
| 257320 | LISSENCEPHALY 2; LIS2 | RELN |
| 257980 | ODONTOONYCHODERMAL DYSPLASIA; OODD | WNT10A |
| 258501 | 3-METHYLGLUTACONIC ACIDURIA, III | OPA3 |
| 259700 | OSTEOPETROSIS, AR 1; OPTB1 | TCIRG1 |
| 259720 | OSTEOPETROSIS, AR 5; OPTB5 | OSTM1 |
| 259730 | OSTEOPETROSIS, AR 3; OPTB3 | CA2 |
| 259770 | OSTEOPOROSIS-PSEUDOGLIOMA SYNDROME; OPPG | LRP5 |
| 259775 | RAINE SYNDROME; RNS | FAM20C |
| 259900 | HYPEROXALURIA, PRIMARY, I | AGXT |
| 260000 | HYPEROXALURIA, PRIMARY, II | GRHPR |
| 260400 | SHWACHMAN-DIAMOND SYNDROME; SDS | SBDS |
| 261515 | D-BIFUNCTIONAL PROTEIN DEFICIENCY | HSD17B4 |
| 261600 | PHENYLKETONURIA; PKU | PAH |
| 261740 | GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE OF HEART, LETHAL CONGENITAL | PRKAG2 |
| 262300 | ACHROMATOPSIA 3; ACHM3 | CNGB3 |
| 262600 | PITUITARY DWARFISM III | HESX1 |
| 262600 | PITUITARY DWARFISM III | LHX3 |
| 262600 | PITUITARY DWARFISM III | POU1F1 |
| 262600 | PITUITARY DWARFISM III | PROP1 |
| 263200 | POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE, AR; ARPKD | PKHD1 |
| 263700 | PORPHYRIA, CONGENITAL ERYTHROPOIETIC | UROS |
| 264350 | PSEUDOHYPOALDOSTERONISM, I, AR; PHA1 | SCNN1A |
| 264350 | PSEUDOHYPOALDOSTERONISM, I, AR; PHA1 | SCNN1B |
| 264350 | PSEUDOHYPOALDOSTERONISM, I, AR; PHA1 | SCNN1G |
| 264470 | PEROXISOMAL ACYL-CoA OXIDASE DEFICIENCY | ACOX1 |
| 264700 | VITAMIN D-DEPENDENT RICKETS, I | CYP27B1 |
| 265000 | MULTIPLE PTERYGIUM SYNDROME, ESCOBAR | CHRNG |
| 265100 | PULMONARY ALVEOLAR MICROLITHIASIS | SLC34A2 |
| 265120 | SURFACTANT METABOLISM DYSFUNCTION, PULMONARY, 1; SMDP1 | SFTPB |
| 265380 | NEWBORN PULMONARY HYPERTENSION, FAMILIAL PERSISTENT | CPS1 |
| 265450 | PULMONARY VENOOCCLUSIVE DISEASE; PVOD | BMPR2 |
| 265800 | PYCNODYSOSTOSIS | CTSK |
| 266130 | GLUTATHIONE SYNTHETASE DEFICIENCY | GSS |
| 266150 | PYRUVATE CARBOXYLASE DEFICIENCY | PC |
| 266200 | PYRUVATE KINASE DEFICIENCY OF RED CELLS | PKLR |
| 266265 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, IIc; CDG2C | SLC35C1 |
| 266900 | SENIOR-LOKEN SYNDROME 1; SLSN1 | NPHP1 |
| 267430 | RENAL TUBULAR DYSGENESIS; RTD | ACE |
| 267430 | RENAL TUBULAR DYSGENESIS; RTD | AGT |
| 267430 | RENAL TUBULAR DYSGENESIS; RTD | AGTR1 |
| 267430 | RENAL TUBULAR DYSGENESIS; RTD | REN |
| 267450 | RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME IN PREMATURE INFANTS | SFTPA1 |
| 267450 | RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME IN PREMATURE INFANTS | SFTPB |
| 267450 | RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME IN PREMATURE INFANTS | SFTPC |
| 268300 | ROBERTS SYNDROME; RBS | ESCO2 |
| 268800 | SANDHOFF DISEASE | HEXB |
| 269250 | SCHNECKENBECKEN DYSPLASIA | SLC35D1 |
| 269920 | INFANTILE SIALIC ACID STORAGE DISORDER | SLC17A5 |
| 270200 | SJOGREN-LARSSON SYNDROME; SLS | ALDH3A2 |
| 270400 | SMITH-LEMLI-OPITZ SYNDROME; SLOS | DHCR7 |
| 270450 | INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR I, RESISTANCE TO | IGF1 |
| 270550 | SPASTIC ATAXIA, CHARLEVOIX-SAGUENAY ; SACS | SACS |
| 271245 | INFANTILE-ONSET SPINOCEREBELLAR ATAXIA; IOSCA | C10ORF2 |
| 271900 | CANAVAN DISEASE | ASPA |
| 271930 | STRIATONIGRAL DEGENERATION, INFANTILE; SNDI | NUP62 |
| 271980 | SUCCINIC SEMIALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY | ALDH5A1 |
| 272300 | SULFOCYSTEINURIA | SUOX |
| 272800 | TAY-SACHS DISEASE; TSD | HEXA |
| 273395 | TETRA-AMELIA, AR | WNT3 |
| 274150 | THROMBOTIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA, CONGENITAL; TTP | ADAMTS13 |
| 274270 | DIHYDROPYRIMIDINE DEHYDROGENASE; DPYD | DPYD |
| 274600 | PENDRED SYNDROME; PDS | SLC26A4 |
| 275100 | HYPOTHYROIDISM, CONGENITAL, NONGOITROUS, 4; CHNG4 | TSHB |
| 275210 | TIGHT SKIN CONTRACTURE SYNDROME, LETHAL | LMNA |
| 275210 | TIGHT SKIN CONTRACTURE SYNDROME, LETHAL | ZMPSTE24 |
| 276700 | TYROSINEMIA, I | FAH |
| 276820 | ULNA AND FIBULA, ABSENCE OF | WNT7A |
| 276900 | USHER SYNDROME, I | MYO7A |
| 276901 | USHER SYNDROME, IIA; USH2A | USH2A |
| 276902 | USHER SYNDROME, III; USH3 | CLRN1 |
| 276904 | USHER SYNDROME, IC; USH1C | USH1C |
| 277300 | SPONDYLOCOSTAL DYSOSTOSIS, AR 1; SCDO1 | DLL3 |
| 277400 | METHYLMALONIC ACIDURIA AND HOMOCYSTINURIA, cblC | MMACHC |
| 277440 | VITAMIN D-DEPENDENT RICKETS, II | VDR |
| 277460 | VITAMIN E, FAMILIAL ISOLATED DEFICIENCY OF; VED | TTPA |
| 277470 | PONTOCEREBELLAR HYPOPLASIA 2A; PCH2A | TSEN54 |
| 277580 | WAARDENBURG-SHAH SYNDROME | EDN3 |
| 277580 | WAARDENBURG-SHAH SYNDROME | EDNRB |
| 277580 | WAARDENBURG-SHAH SYNDROME | SOX10 |
| 277900 | WILSON DISEASE | ATP7B |
| 278700 | XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM, COMPLEMENTATION GROUP A; XPA | XPA |
| 278730 | XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM, COMPLEMENTATION GROUP D; XPD | ERCC2 |
| 278740 | XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM, COMPLEMENTATION GROUP E | DDB2 |
| 278760 | XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM, COMPLEMENTATION GROUP F; XPF | ERCC4 |
| 278780 | XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM, COMPLEMENTATION GROUP G; XPG | ERCC5 |
| 278800 | DE SANCTIS-CACCHIONE SYNDROME | ERCC6 |
| 278800 | DE SANCTIS-CACCHIONE SYNDROME | XPA |
| 300004 | CORPUS CALLOSUM, AGENESIS OF, WITH ABNORMAL GENITALIA | ARX |
| 300018 | DOSAGE-SENSITIVE SEX REVERSAL; DSS | NR0B1 |
| 300048 | INTESTINAL PSEUDOOBSTRUCTION, NEURONAL, CHRONIC IDIOPATHIC, XLR | FLNA |
| 300067 | LISSENCEPHALY, XLR, 1; LISX1 | DCX |
| 300069 | CARDIOMYOPATHY, DILATED, 3A; CMD3A | TAZ |
| 300100 | ADRENOLEUKODYSTROPHY; ALD | ABCD1 |
| 300209 | SIMPSON-GOLABI-BEHMEL SYNDROME, 2 | OFD1 |
| 300215 | LISSENCEPHALY, XLR, 2 LISX2 | ARX |
| 300220 | MENTAL RETARDATION, XLR, SYNDROMIC 10; MRXS10 | HSD17B10 |
| 300240 | HOYERAAL-HREIDARSSON SYNDROME; HHS | DKC1 |
| 300243 | MENTAL RETARDATION, XLR, SYNDROMIC, CHRISTIANSON | SLC9A6 |
| 300291 | ECTODERMAL DYSPLASIA, HYPOHIDROTIC, WITH IMMUNE DEFICIENCY | IKBKG |
| 300301 | OSTEOPETROSIS, LYMPHEDEMA, ECTODERMAL DYSPLASIA, ANHIDROSIS, IMMUNODEFICIENCY | IKBKG |
| 300322 | LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME; LNS | HPRT1 |
| 300352 | CREATINE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME, XLR | SLC6A8 |
| 300400 | SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY, XLR; SCIDX1 | IL2RG |
| 300472 | AGENESIS OF CORPUS CALLOSUM WITH MENTAL RETARDATION, OCULAR COLOBOMA | IGBP1 |
| 300523 | ALLAN-HERNDON-DUDLEY SYNDROME AHDS | SLC16A2 |
| 300672 | EPILEPTIC ENCEPHALOPATHY, EARLY INFANTILE, 2 | CDKL5 |
| 300673 | ENCEPHALOPATHY, NEONATAL SEVERE, DUE TO MECP2 MUTATIONS | MECP2 |
| 300755 | AGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA, XLR XLA | BTK |
| 301000 | WISKOTT-ALDRICH SYNDROME; WAS | WAS |
| 301040 | α-THALASSEMIA/MENTAL RETARDATION SYNDROME,NONDELETION , XLR ATRX | ATRX |
| 301500 | FABRY DISEASE | GLA |
| 301830 | SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, XLR 2; SMAX2 | UBA1 |
| 301835 | ARTS SYNDROME; ARTS | PRPS1 |
| 302045 | CARDIOMYOPATHY, DILATED, 3B; CMD3B | DMD |
| 302060 | BARTH SYNDROME; BTHS | TAZ |
| 302950 | CHONDRODYSPLASIA PUNCTATA 1, XLR RECESSIVE; CDPX1 | ARSE |
| 303100 | CHOROIDEREMIA; CHM | CHM |
| 303350 | MASA SYNDROME | L1CAM |
| 304100 | CORPUS CALLOSUM, PARTIAL AGENESIS OF, XLR | L1CAM |
| 304790 | IMMUNODYSREGULATION, POLYENDOCRINOPATHY, AND ENTEROPATHY, XLR | FOXP3 |
| 305100 | ECTODERMAL DYSPLASIA, HYPOHIDROTIC, XLR; XHED | EDA |
| 305900 | GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE; G6PD | G6PD |
| 306955 | HETEROTAXY, VISCERAL, 1, XLR; HTX1 | ZIC3 |
| 307000 | HYDROCEPHALUS DUE TO CONGENITAL STENOSIS OF AQUEDUCT OF SYLVIUS; HSAS | L1CAM |
| 308230 | IMMUNODEFICIENCY WITH HYPER-IgM, 1; HIGM1 | CD40LG |
| 308240 | LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE SYNDROME, XLR, 1; XLP1 | SH2D1A |
| 308350 | EPILEPTIC ENCEPHALOPATHY, EARLY INFANTILE, 1 | ARX |
| 308370 | INFERTILE MALE SYNDROME | AR |
| 308930 | LEIGH SYNDROME, XLR | PDHA1 |
| 309000 | LOWE OCULOCEREBRORENAL SYNDROME; OCRL | OCRL |
| 309400 | MENKES DISEASE | ATP7A |
| 309500 | RENPENNING SYNDROME 1; RENS1 | PQBP1 |
| 309520 | LUJAN-FRYNS SYNDROME | MED12 |
| 310200 | MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, DUCHENNE ; DMD | DMD |
| 310400 | MYOTUBULAR MYOPATHY 1; MTM1 | MTM1 |
| 310600 | NORRIE DISEASE; ND | NDP |
| 311150 | OPTICOACOUSTIC NERVE ATROPHY WITH DEMENTIA | TIMM8A |
| 311250 | ORNITHINE TRANSCARBAMYLASE DEFICIENCY, HYPERAMMONEMIA DUE TO | OTC |
| 312060 | PROPERDIN DEFICIENCY, XLR | CFP |
| 312080 | PELIZAEUS-MERZBACHER DISEASE; PMD | PLP1 |
| 312700 | RETINOSCHISIS 1, XLR, JUVENILE; RS1 | RS1 |
| 312750 | RETT SYNDROME; RTT | MECP2 |
| 312863 | COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY, XLR; CIDX | IL2RG |
| 312920 | SPASTIC PARAPLEGIA 2, XLR; SPG2 | PLP1 |
| 314390 | VACTERL ASSOCIATION WITH HYDROCEPHALUS, XLR | FANCB |
| 600060 | DEAFNESS, NEUROSENSORY, AR 2; DFNB2 | MYO7A |
| 600118 | WARBURG MICRO SYNDROME; WARBM | RAB3GAP1 |
| 600121 | RHIZOMELIC CHONDRODYSPLASIA PUNCTATA, 3; RCDP3 | AGPS |
| 600143 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 8; CLN8 | CLN8 |
| 600501 | ABCD SYNDROME | EDNRB |
| 600649 | CARNITINE PALMITOYLTRANSFERASE II DEFICIENCY, INFANTILE | CPT2 |
| 600721 | D-2-HYDROXYGLUTARIC ACIDURIA | D2HGDH |
| 600737 | INCLUSION BODY MYOPATHY 2, AR; IBM2 | GNE |
| 600802 | SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY, AR, T CELL- B CELL+, NK CELL- | JAK3 |
| 600972 | ACHONDROGENESIS, IB; ACG1B | SLC26A2 |
| 601067 | USHER SYNDROME, ID; USH1D | CDH23 |
| 601186 | MICROPHTHALMIA, SYNDROMIC 9; MCOPS9 | STRA6 |
| 601378 | CRISPONI SYNDROME | CRLF1 |
| 601451 | NEVO SYNDROME | PLOD1 |
| 601457 | SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY, AR, T CELL-NEGATIVE, | RAG1 |
| 601457 | SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY, AR, T CELL-NEGATIVE, | RAG2 |
| 601559 | STUVE-WIEDEMANN SYNDROME | LIFR |
| 601675 | TRICHOTHIODYSTROPHY, PHOTOSENSITIVE; TTDP | ERCC2 |
| 601675 | TRICHOTHIODYSTROPHY, PHOTOSENSITIVE; TTDP | ERCC3 |
| 601675 | TRICHOTHIODYSTROPHY, PHOTOSENSITIVE; TTDP | GTF2H5 |
| 601678 | BARTTER SYNDROME, ANTENATAL, 1 | SLC12A1 |
| 601705 | T-CELL IMMUNODEFICIENCY, CONGENITAL ALOPECIA, AND NAIL DYSTROPHY | FOXN1 |
| 601706 | YEMENITE DEAF-BLIND HYPOPIGMENTATION SYNDROME | SOX10 |
| 601780 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 6; CLN6 | CLN6 |
| 601847 | CHOLESTASIS, PROGRESSIVE FAMILIAL INTRAHEPATIC 2; PFIC2 | ABCB11 |
| 602083 | USHER SYNDROME, IF; USH1F | PCDH15 |
| 602088 | NEPHRONOPHTHISIS 2; NPHP2 | INVS |
| 602390 | HEMOCHROMATOSIS, JUVENILE; JH | HAMP |
| 602390 | HEMOCHROMATOSIS, JUVENILE; JH | HFE2 |
| 602398 | DESMOSTEROLOSIS | DHCR24 |
| 602473 | ENCEPHALOPATHY, ETHYLMALONIC | ETHE1 |
| 602579 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Ib; CDG1B | MPI |
| 602771 | RIGID SPINE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY 1; RSMD1 | SEPN1 |
| 603147 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Ic; CDG1C | ALG6 |
| 603358 | GRACILE SYNDROME | BCS1L |
| 603554 | OMENN SYNDROME | DCLRE1C |
| 603554 | OMENN SYNDROME | RAG1 |
| 603554 | OMENN SYNDROME | RAG2 |
| 603585 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, IIf; CDG2F | SLC35A1 |
| 603903 | SICKLE CELL ANEMIA | HBB |
| 604004 | MEGALENCEPHALIC LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY WITH SUBCORTICAL CYSTS; MLC | MLC1 |
| 604250 | HEMOCHROMATOSIS, 3 | TFR2 |
| 604320 | SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, DISTAL, AR, 1; DSMA1 | IGHMBP2 |
| 604369 | SIALURIA, FINNISH | SLC17A5 |
| 604377 | CARDIOENCEPHALOMYOPATHY, FATAL INFANTILE, DUE TO CYTOCHROME c OXIDASE | SCO2 |
| 604498 | AMEGAKARYOCYTIC THROMBOCYTOPENIA, CONGENITAL; CAMT | MPL |
| 605039 | C-LIKE SYNDROME | CD96 |
| 605253 | NEUROPATHY, HYPOMYELINATING/CHARCOT-MARIE-TOOTH DISEASE, 4E | EGR2 |
| 605253 | NEUROPATHY, HYPOMYELINATING/CHARCOT-MARIE-TOOTH DISEASE, 4E | MPZ |
| 605355 | NEMALINE MYOPATHY 5; NEM5 | TNNT1 |
| 605407 | SEGAWA SYNDROME, AR | TH |
| 605472 | USHER SYNDROME, IIC; USH2C | GPR98 |
| 605899 | GLYCINE ENCEPHALOPATHY; GCE | AMT |
| 605899 | GLYCINE ENCEPHALOPATHY; GCE | GCSH |
| 605899 | GLYCINE ENCEPHALOPATHY; GCE | GLDC |
| 606056 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, IIb; CDG2B | MOGS |
| 606353 | PRIMARY LATERAL SCLEROSIS, JUVENILE; PLSJ | ALS2 |
| 606369 | EPILEPTIC ENCEPHALOPATHY, LENNOX-GASTAUT | MAPK10 |
| 606407 | HYPOTONIA-CYSTINURIA SYNDROME | PREPL |
| 606407 | HYPOTONIA-CYSTINURIA SYNDROME | SLC3A1 |
| 606612 | MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, CONGENITAL, 1C; MDC1C | FKRP |
| 606812 | FUMARASE DEFICIENCY | FH |
| 606943 | USHER SYNDROME, IG; USH1G | USH1G |
| 606966 | NEPHRONOPHTHISIS 4; NPHP4 | NPHP4 |
| 607014 | HURLER SYNDROME | IDUA |
| 607091 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, IId; CDG2D | B4GALT1 |
| 607095 | ANAUXETIC DYSPLASIA | RMRP |
| 607330 | LATHOSTEROLOSIS | SC5DL |
| 607426 | COENZYME Q10 DEFICIENCY | APTX |
| 607426 | COENZYME Q10 DEFICIENCY | CABC1 |
| 607426 | COENZYME Q10 DEFICIENCY | COQ2 |
| 607426 | COENZYME Q10 DEFICIENCY | PDSS1 |
| 607426 | COENZYME Q10 DEFICIENCY | PDSS2 |
| 607598 | ICOS DEFICIENCY; LCCS2 | ERBB3 |
| 607616 | NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE, B | SMPD1 |
| 607624 | GRISCELLI SYNDROME, 2; GS2 | RAB27A |
| 607625 | NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE, C2 | NPC2 |
| 607626 | ICHTHYOSIS, LEUKOCYTE VACUOLES, ALOPECIA, AND SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS | CLDN1 |
| 607655 | SKIN FRAGILITY-WOOLLY HAIR SYNDROME | DSP |
| 607855 | MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, CONGENITAL MEROSIN-DEFICIENT, 1A; MDC1A | LAMA2 |
| 608013 | GAUCHER DISEASE, PERINATAL LETHAL | GBA |
| 608093 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Ij; CDG1J | DPAGT1 |
| 608099 | MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, LIMB-GIRDLE, 2D; LGMD2D | SGCA |
| 608456 | COLORECTAL ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS, AR | MUTYH |
| 608540 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Ik; CDG1K | ALG1 |
| 608612 | MANDIBULOACRAL DYSPLASIA WITH B LIPODYSTROPHY; MADB | ZMPSTE24 |
| 608629 | JOUBERT SYNDROME 3; JBTS3 | AHI1 |
| 608643 | AROMATIC L-AMINO ACID DECARBOXYLASE DEFICIENCY | DDC |
| 608688 | AICAR TRANSYLASE/IMP CYCLOHYDROLASE, DEFICIENCY OF | ATIC |
| 608782 | PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE PHOSPHATASE DEFICIENCY | PDP1 |
| 608799 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Ie; CDG1E | DPM1 |
| 608800 | SUDDEN INFANT DEATH WITH DYSGENESIS OF THE TESTES SYNDROME; SIDDT | TSPYL1 |
| 608804 | LEUKODYSTROPHY, HYPOMYELINATING, 2 | GJC2 |
| 608836 | CARNITINE PALMITOYLTRANSFERASE II DEFICIENCY, LETHAL NEONATAL | CPT2 |
| 608840 | MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY, CONGENITAL, 1D | LARGE |
| 609015 | TRIFUNCTIONAL PROTEIN DEFICIENCY | HADHA |
| 609015 | TRIFUNCTIONAL PROTEIN DEFICIENCY | HADHB |
| 609016 | LONG-CHAIN 3-HYDROXYACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY | HADHA |
| 609049 | PIERSON SYNDROME | LAMB2 |
| 609056 | AMISH INFANTILE EPILEPSY SYNDROME | ST3GAL5 |
| 609060 | COMBINED OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION DEFICIENCY 1; COXPD1 | GFM1 |
| 609241 | SCHINDLER DISEASE, I | NAGA |
| 609254 | SENIOR-LOKEN SYNDROME 5; SLSN5 | IQCB1 |
| 609304 | EPILEPTIC ENCEPHALOPATHY, EARLY INFANTILE, 3 | SLC25A22 |
| 609311 | CHARCOT-MARIE-TOOTH DISEASE, 4H; CMT4H | FGD4 |
| 609528 | CEREBRAL DYSGENESIS, NEUROPATHY, ICHTHYOSIS, PALMOPLANTAR KERATODERMA | SNAP29 |
| 609560 | MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DEPLETION SYNDROME, MYOPATHIC | TK2 |
| 609583 | JOUBERT SYNDROME 4; JBTS4 | NPHP1 |
| 609638 | EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA, LETHAL ACANTHOLYTIC | DSP |
| 610003 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 8, NORTHERN EPILEPSY | CLN8 |
| 610006 | 2-METHYLBUTYRYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY | ACADSB |
| 610090 | PYRIDOXAMINE 5-PRIME-PHOSPHATE OXIDASE DEFICIENCY | PNPO |
| 610127 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 10; CLN10 | CTSD |
| 610188 | JOUBERT SYNDROME 5; JBTS5 | CEP290 |
| 610198 | 3-METHYLGLUTACONIC ACIDURIA, V | DNAJC19 |
| 610370 | DIARRHEA 4, MALABSORPTIVE, CONGENITAL | NEUROG3 |
| 610377 | MEVALONIC ACIDURIA | MVK |
| 610498 | COMBINED OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION DEFICIENCY 2; COXPD2 | MRPS16 |
| 610505 | COMBINED OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION DEFICIENCY 3; COXPD3 | TSFM |
| 610532 | LEUKODYSTROPHY, HYPOMYELINATING, 5 | FAM126A |
| 610651 | XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM, COMPLEMENTATION GROUP B; XPB | ERCC3 |
| 610688 | JOUBERT SYNDROME 6; JBTS6 | TMEM67 |
| 610725 | NEPHROTIC SYNDROME, 3; NPHS3 | PLCE1 |
| 610768 | CONGENITAL DISORDER OF GLYCOSYLATION, Im; CDG1M | DOLK |
| 610854 | OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA, IIB | CRTAP |
| 610915 | OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA, VIII | LEPRE1 |
| 610951 | CEROID LIPOFUSCINOSIS, NEURONAL, 7; CLN7 | MFSD8 |
| 610992 | PHOSPHOSERINE AMINOTRANSFERASE DEFICIENCY | PSAT1 |
| 611067 | SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, DISTAL, AR, 4; DSMA4 | PLEKHG5 |
| 611126 | ACYL-CoA DEHYDROGENASE FAMILY, MEMBER 9, DEFICIENCY OF | ACAD9 |
| 611561 | MECKEL SYNDROME, 5; MKS5 | RPGRIP1L |
| 611705 | MYOPATHY, EARLY-ONSET, WITH FATAL CARDIOMYOPATHY | TTN |
| 611719 | COMBINED OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION DEFICIENCY 5; COXPD5 | MRPS22 |
| 611721 | COMBINED SAPOSIN DEFICIENCY | PSAP |
| 611722 | KRABBE DISEASE, ATYPICAL, DUE TO SAPOSIN A DEFICIENCY | PSAP |
| 611726 | EPILEPSY, PROGRESSIVE MYOCLONIC 3; EPM3 | KCTD7 |
| 612164 | EPILEPTIC ENCEPHALOPATHY, EARLY INFANTILE, 4 | STXBP1 |
| 612304 | THROMBOPHILIA, HEREDITARY, DUE TO PROTEIN C DEFICIENCY, AUTOSOMAL | PROC |
| 612416 | FACTOR XI DEFICIENCY | F11 |
Competing Interests
The author has received in-kind funding from private companies (Illumina Inc., Life Technologies Inc., Roche-Nimblegen and British Airways PLC).
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. M. Chandler and Dr. M. Spain, who envisioned universal preconception screening, and the many physicians and geneticists who refined the concept and candidate disease list, particularly Prof. Dr. H.H. Ropers. This test is dedicated to Christiane. A deo lumen, ab amicis auxilium.References
- Bell CJ, Dinwiddie DL, Miller NA, Hateley SL, Ganusova EE, Mudge J, Langley RJ, Zhang L, Lee CC, Schilkey FD, Sheth V, Woodward JE, Peckham HE, Schroth GP, Kim RW, Kingsmore SF. Carrier testing for severe childhood recessive diseases by next-generation sequencing. Sci Transl Med. 2011 Jan 12;3(65):65ra4. PMID:21228398.
- Maddalena A, Bale S, Das S, Grody W, Richards S. American College of Medical Genetics Standards and Guidelines for Clinical Genetics Laboratories. Technical Standards and Guidelines: Molecular Genetic Testing for Ultra-Rare Disorders. 2006. https://www.acmg.net/Pages/ACMG_Activities/stds-2002/URD.htm
- Kaback MM. The control of genetic disease by carrier screening and antenatal diagnosis: social, ethical and medico-legal implications. Birth Defects 18:243-54 (1982).
- Motulsky AG. Screening for genetic diseases. N Engl J Med. 336:1314-16 (1997).
- Srinivasan BS, Evans EA, Flannick J, Patterson AS, Chang CC, Pham T, Young S, Kaushal A, Lee J, Jacobson JL, Patrizio P. A universal carrier test for the long tail of Mendelian disease. Reprod Biomed Online. 2010 Oct;21(4):537-51. PMID:20729146.
- Baker VL, Rone HM, Adamson GD. Genetic evaluation of oocyte donors: recipient couple preferences and outcome of testing. Fertil Steril. 90:2091-8 (2008).
- Myrianthopoulos NC, Aronson SM. Population dynamics of Tay-Sachs disease. I. Reproductive fitness and selection. Am J Hum Genet. 18:313-27 (1966). PMID: 5945951.
- Kaback MM. Hexosaminidase A Deficiency. In: Pagon RA, Bird TC, Dolan CR, Stephens K, editors. GeneReviews [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-. 1999 Mar 11 [updated 2006 May 19].PMID: 20301397
- Mitchell, J.J., Capua, A., Clow, C., Scriver, C.R. Twenty-year outcome analysis of genetic screening programs for Tay-Sachs and beta-thalassemia disease carriers in high schools. Am J Hum Genet. 59:793-8 (1996).
- D’Souza G, McCann C, Hiedrick J, Fairley CL, Nagel HL, Kushner JD, Kessel R. Tay-Sachs disease carrier screening: a 21-year experience. Genet Test. 4:257-63 (2000).
- Kaback MM. Population-based genetic screening for reproductive counseling: the Tay-Sachs disease model. Eur J Pediatr. 159 Suppl 3:S192-5 (2000). PMID: 11216898.
- Population-based carrier screening for single gene disorders: lessons learned and new opportunities. February 6-7, 2008. Available at https://www.genome.gov/27026048
- Kronn, D., Jansen, V., Ostrer, H. Carrier screening for cystic fibrosis, Gaucher disease, and Tay-Sachs disease in the Ashkenazi Jewish population: the first 1000 cases at New York University Medical Center, New York, NY. Arch Intern Med. 158:777-81 (1998).
- The Human Genetics Commission. Increasing options, informing choice: A report on preconception genetic testing and screening. April 6 2011. https://www.hgc.gov.uk/Client/document.asp?DocId=315&CAtegoryId=10
- Castellani, C., et al. Association between carrier screening and incidence of cystic fibrosis. JAMA. 302:2573-9 (2009).
- Hale, J.E., Parad, R.B., Comeau, A.M. Newborn screening showing decreasing incidence of cystic fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 358:973-974 (2008).
- Bobadilla JL, Macek M Jr, Fine JP, Farrell PM. Cystic Fibrosis: A Worldwide Analysis of CFTR Mutations-Correlation With Incidence Data and Application to Screening. Hum Mutat. 19:575-606 (2002). PubMed PMID: 12007216.
- Grody, W.W., Cutting, G.R., Klinger, K.W., Richards, C.S., Watson, M.S., Desnick, R.J. Laboratory standards and guidelines for population based cystic fibrosis carrier screening. Genetics in Medicine. 3:149-54 (2001).
- Barlow-Stewart K, Burnett L, Proos A, Howell V, Huq F, Lazarus R, Aizenberg H. A genetic screening programme for Tay-Sachs disease and cystic fibrosis for Australian Jewish high school students. J Med Genet. 40:e45 (2003).
- McCabe L. Efficacy of a targeted genetic screening program for adolescents. Am J Hum Genet. 31:743 (1994).
- Lau YL, Chan LC, Chan YYA, Chan BS, Shau-Yin H, Yeung CY, Waye JS, Chui DHK. Prevalence and genotypes of alpha and beta-thalassaemia carriers in Hong Kong - implications for population screening. N Engl J Med. 336:1298-301 (1997).
- Barlow-Stewart K, Keays D. Genetic discrimination in Australia. J Law Med. 8:250-62 (2001).
- Gnirke A, Melnikov A, Maguire J, Rogov P, LeProust EM, Brockman W, Fennell T, Giannoukos G, Fisher S, Russ C, Gabriel S, Jaffe DB, Lander ES, Nusbaum C. Solution hybrid selection with ultra-long oligonucleotides for massively parallel targeted sequencing. Nat Biotechnol. 27:182-9 (2009).
- Wu TD, Nacu S. Fast and SNP-tolerant detection of complex variants and splicing in short reads. Bioinformatics. 2010 Apr 1;26(7):873-81. PMID: 20147302.
- Wu TD, Watanabe CK. GMAP: a genomic mapping and alignment program for mRNA and EST sequences. Bioinformatics. 2005 May 1;21(9):1859-75. PMID:15728110.
- Sugarbaker DJ, Richards WG, Gordon GJ, Dong L, De Rienzo A, Maulik G, Glickman JN, Chirieac LR, Hartman ML, Taillon BE, Du L, Bouffard P, Kingsmore SF, Miller NA, Farmer AD, Jensen RV, Gullans SR, Bueno R. Transcriptome sequencing of malignant pleural mesothelioma tumors. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 3521–3526 (2008).
- Miller NA, Kingsmore SF, Farmer A, Langley RJ, Mudge J, Crow JA, Gonzalez AJ, Schilkey FD, Kim RJ, van Velkinburgh J, May GD, Black CF, Myers MK, Utsey JP, Frost NS, Sugarbaker DJ, Bueno R, Gullans SR, Baxter SM, Day SW, Retzel EF. Management of high-throughput DNA sequencing projects: Alpheus. J. Comput. Sci. Syst. Biol. 1, 132–148 (2008).
- Mudge J, Miller NA, Khrebtukova I, Lindquist IE, May GD, Huntley JJ, Luo S, Zhang L, van Velkinburgh JC, Farmer AD, Lewis S, Beavis WD, Schilkey FD, Virk SM, Black CF, Myers MK, Mader LC, Langley RJ, Utsey JP, Kim RW, Roberts RC, Khalsa SK, Garcia M, Ambriz-Griffith V, Harlan R, Czika W, Martin S, Wolfinger RD, Perrone-Bizzozero NI, Schroth GP, Kingsmore SF. Genomic convergence analysis of schizophrenia: mRNA sequencing reveals altered synaptic vesicular transport in post-mortem cerebellum. PLoS One. 2008;3(11):e3625. PMID:18985160.
- Kim JI, Ju YS, Park H, Kim S, Lee S, Yi JH, Mudge J, Miller NA, Hong D, Bell CJ, Kim HS, Chung IS, Lee WC, Lee JS, Seo SH, Yun JY, Woo HN, Lee H, Suh D, Lee S, Kim HJ, Yavartanoo M, Kwak M, Zheng Y, Lee MK, Park H, Kim JY, Gokcumen O, Mills RE, Zaranek AW, Thakuria J, Wu X, Kim RW, Huntley JJ, Luo S, Schroth GP, Wu TD, Kim H, Yang KS, Park WY, Kim H, Church GM, Lee C, Kingsmore SF, Seo JS. A highly-annotated, whole-genome sequence of a Korean Individual. Nature 460:1011-5 (2009).
- Baranzini SE, Mudge J, van Velkinburgh JC, Khankhanian P, Khrebtukova I, Miller NA, Zhang L, Farmer AD, Bell CJ, Kim RW, May GD, Woodward JE, Caillier SJ, McElroy JP, Gomez R, Pando MJ, Clendenen LE, Ganusova EE, Schilkey FD, Ramaraj T, Khan OA, Huntley JJ, Luo S, Kwok PY, Wu TD, Schroth GP, Oksenberg JR, Hauser SL, Kingsmore SF. Genome, epigenome and RNA sequences of monozygotic twins discordant for multiple sclerosis. Nature 464:1351-6 (2010).
- Points to consider: ethical, legal, and psychosocial implications of genetic testing in children and adolescents. American Society of Human Genetics Board of Directors, American College of Medical Genetics Board of Directors. Am J Hum Genet. 1995 Nov;57(5):1233-41.
- Richards CS, Bale S, Bellissimo DB, Das S, Grody WW, Hegde MR, Lyon E, Ward BE; Molecular Subcommittee of the ACMG Laboratory Quality Assurance Committee. ACMG recommendations for standards for interpretation and reporting of sequence variations: Revisions 2007. Genet Med. 2008 Apr;10(4):294-300.
- M. S. Watson, M. A. Lloyd-Puryear, M. Y. Mann, P. Rinaldo, R. R. Howell, Main report. Genet. Med. 8, 12S–252S (2006).
- ACMG Laboratory Practice Committee Working Group. Recommendations for standards for interpretation of sequence variations. Genet Med 2000;2:302-303.
- Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. MDx Methods for Genetic Diseases; Second Edition. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. ISBN 1-56238-615-8. 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, Pennsylvania 19087. 2006.
- Costa T, Scriver CR, Childs B. The effect of Mendelian disease on human health: A measurement. Am J Med Genet. 1985 21:243-55. PMID: 4014311.
- McCandless SE, Brunger JW, Cassidy SB. The burden of genetic disease on inpatient care in a children's hospital. Am J. Hum. Genet. 74:121-127 (2004). PMID: 14681831
- Lialiaris T, Mantadakis E, Kareli D, Mpountoukas P, Tsalkidis A, Chatzimichail A. Frequency of genetic diseases and health coverage of children requiring admission in a general pediatric clinic of northern Greece. Ital J Pediatr. 2010 36:9. PMID: 20205810
- Watson, M.S., Lloyd-Puryear, M.A., Mann, M.Y., Rinaldo, P., Howell, R.R. Newborn screening main report. Genetics in Medicine. 8:12S-252S (2006).
- Berry RJ, Buehler JW, Strauss LT, et al. 1987. Birth weight-specific infant mortality due to congenital abnormalities, 1960 and 1980. Public Health Report 102:171-81.
- ACOG Committee on Genetics. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 442: Preconception and prenatal carrier screening for genetic diseases in individuals of Eastern European Jewish descent. Obstet Gynecol. 114:950-3 (2009).
- ACOG Committee on Genetics. ACOG committee opinion. No. 338: Screening for fragile X syndrome. Obstet Gynecol. 107:1483-5 (2006).
- ACOG Committee on Genetics. ACOG Committee Opinion. Number 325, December 2005. Update on carrier screening for cystic fibrosis. Obstet Gynecol. 106:1465-8 (2005).
- Board of Directors of the American College of Medical Genetics. Position Statement on Carrier Testing for Canavan Disease. January 10,1998. Available at https://www.acmg.net/StaticContent/StaticPages/Canavan.pdf
- Kingsmore SF, Saunders CJ, Deep sequencing of patient genomes for disease diagnosis: When will it become routine? Sci Transl Med. 2011 Jun 15;3(87):87ps23.
Leave a Comment
You must be logged in to post a comment.