Emergency Registrar (UK) Careflight Emergency Retrieval Registrar (AUS)
The definition of a mass gathering has previously been highlighted as an event at specific location of at least 1000 persons or more
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines a hazard as “a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage”. If the hazardous event exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources then it is defined as a disaster. In the context of this review of mass gathering incidents a weather or environmental hazard is to be considered as a natural event occurring suddenly causing great loss of life or damage to surroundings.
Historically, peer-review literature has concentrated on crowd variables that affect the level and types of medical need at a mass gathering event
This review aims to analyse previous cases of weather and environmental hazard disasters at mass gathering events, documenting the lessons identified to provide considerations when planning for future events. It is hoped, that with careful assessment of the mass gathering event as a whole it may be possible to plan ahead for potential number of attendees, consider health and safety aspects of planning for a mass gathering, plan for potential disasters and provide a more effective allocation of health and medical resources
This literature review concentrates on extreme events and environmental health hazards at mass gathering events, focusing predominantly on case reports and literature reviews citing particular lessons identified from previous disasters.
A literature search was carried out using Medline, Cochrane, HMIC and Embase. The search terms are listed in Table 1. All peer-review literature articles found containing information pertaining to lessons identified from mass gathering crowd disasters were analysed and reviewed.
Weather Hazards
Geological Hazards
Disease
Drought
Avalanche
Water-bourne
Heat wave
Earthquake
Air-borne
Blizzard
Volcanic Eruption
Vector-bourne
Hailstorm
Tsunami
Food-bourne
Cyclonic Storms
Ice strom
Tornado
A free-text search was also conducted using Google to link mass gathering events to disaster weather and environmental incidents in order to widen the search beyond peer-reviewed publications including grey literature (media reports, unpublished reports and commissioned inquiries).
Articles describing disasters occurring due to crowd variables such as analysis of cases categorised in to crowd control, event access, fire safety, medical preparedness and emergency response were excluded. Cases of events over a continual 12-month period were also excluded. Citations within articles were further searched to identify additional references that would inform this review.
It was decided not to include natural disasters having a major impact on local population such as the recent Earthquake and Tsunami of Japan and both earthquakes of New Zealand in 2011 as it was felt that these were mass casualty incidents, and not extreme events specific to mass gatherings.
Key words: Mass Gatherings, Disasters, Sporting Events, Festivals, Concerts, Storm, Lightning, Cyclone, Hot-weather illness, Cold-weather illness, Disease, Public Health, Syndromic Surveillance
In total, 20 reported mass gathering incidents from 1988 – 2011, were identified through the extensive literature search of weather and environmental hazards (Table 2), further highlighting the limited availability of mass gathering disaster reviews. While some reports provided valuable information regarding mass gathering disaster occurrence, most cases were descriptive rather than analytical, consequently very few literature reports were found to inform subjects of lessons identified from weather or environmental hazard disasters at mass gathering events. 17 of these incidents had been only reported in journal publications. Only three additional reported events were identified from grey literature searching, one reporting a building collapse from a snowstorm in 1922 and the other two related to mass gathering events in 2011.
Date
Event-place
Environment
Health issues
Learning points identified
References
Jan 1922
Theatre Washinton USA
Snowstorm collapses theatre roof
98 deaths
• Structural integrity of the building
Zeman (2011) *Grey literature report
Feb 1988
Winter Olympics, Calgary, Canada
Cold weather conditions
PPR of 15.2 per 10,000
• 1% cold-related injury presentations
Thompson et al. (1991)
Aug 1988
Music Festival, Michigan, USA
Shigellosis outbreak
3,175 cases of gastroenteritis
• Poor sanitation - no soap available
Lee et al. (1990)
June 1991
Agriculture Show
Warm weather conditions
Heat-related illness
Flabouris et al (1996)
Aug 1996
Olympic Games, Atlanta, USA
Warm weather conditions
Heat-related illness
Brennan et al. (1997)
Aug 1996
Olympic Games, Atlanta, USA
Air pollution reduction program
Reduction in asthma-related ED presentation
Friedman et al. (2001)
June 1997
Music Festival, Glastonbury, UK
E. coli O157 from nearby live animals
7 presentations to local hospital
Crampin et al. (1999)
July 1997
Football Match, Galicia, Spain
Hepatitis A from a public water fountain
23 cases
• Improve hygiene of fountain
Abraria et al. (2000)
June 1998
Triathlon, Springfield, USA
Leptospirosis found in late water
23 cases
Morgan et al. (2002)
Nov 1999
International fair, Kapellen, Belgium
Legionella from whirlpool aerosol spa
41 cases
• Water not changed during time of fair
De Schreiver et al. (2000)
June 1998
College Football, Washington, USA
Lightning strikes woman on cellphone
1 critically injured
Milzman et al. (1998)
Aug 2000
College Football, Virginia, USA
Lightning 1 km away from game
Mass evacuation
Hart (2000)
Mar 2000
The Hajj, Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Outbreak of Meningococcal Disease W135
90 cases reported over 9 countries with 14 fatalities
• Public Health surveillance
Aguiera et al. (2000)
Sep 2001
Swimming Gala, Sun-Moon Lake, Taiwan
Cold water conditions for swimmers
5 episodes of hypothermia
• Provision of upstream medical station
Chang (2001)
2002
Agriculture Show, Adelaide, Australia
Heat-related illness
Review of 7000 patients over 7 years
Zeitz et al. (2002)* Retrospective review
Feb 2002
Winter Olympics, Salt-Lake City, USA
Cold weather conditions
PPR of 26 per 10,000
• 3 cases of frostbite, no hypothermia
Grissom et al. (2005)
Jul 2005
College Football, USA
Warm weather conditions
Heat-related illness
Kman et al. (2007) *Retrospective study
Nov 2005
College Football, Iowa, USA
Cyclone 15 km from game led to crowd diversion
Mass evacuation No injuries
Gallus (2006) *Case report
Aug 2008
Olympic Games, Beijing, China
Air pollution reduction programme
54% Reduction respiratory OPA presentation
Li et al. (2010) *Review
Mar 2009
Series of college events, USA
Heat-related illness and population
* Patient prediction model
• Suggestions for healthcare provision at event
Hartman et al. (2009)
Aug 2011
State Fair, Indiana, USA
70mph winds tearing down stage
5 Deaths
*
Guyett (2011) *Grey literature report
Aug 2011
Music Festival, Belgium
Hailstorm led to stage collapse
5 Deaths
*
Blenkinsop (2011)
20 reported mass gathering incidents have been read, analysed, abstracted, referenced and complied in chronological order and referenced (Table 2). The main learning points have been identified and further categorised into the following event triggers of heat (5), cold (4), lightning and storms (5), and disease outbreaks (6).
A retrospective review of medical records from 47 college football games at two outdoor stadiums over a 5 year period found that a 1 degree increase in temperature from 20OC to 21OC showed an 11% increase in patient numbers requiring medical attention
A patient presentation model was devised in 2009 which generates a scoring system based on the variables of weather, number of participants, presence of ethanol, crowd mood and age of the crowd in an effort to predict health resource utilisation at mass gathering events (Table 3). Despite its usefulness, it can be argued that the prediction tool fails to prioritise one variable over another and that it also hinders the ability to make predictions about specific or complicated mass gatherings
Adapted from Hartman et al: Am J Emerg Med 2009 Mar;27(3):337-43.
Weather (Heat Index)
Crowd attendance
Ethanol
Crowd age
Crowd intention
Point value
> 32.2º C
> 15,000
Significant
Older
Animated
2
< 32.2º C Climate not controlled
1,000- 15,000
Limited
Mixed
Intermediate
1
Climate controlled
< 1,000
None
Supervised younger
Calm
0
Adapted from Hartman et al: Am J Emerg Med 2009 Mar;27(3):337-43.
Event classification
Score & recommendations
Major
Total Score > 5 or Scores of 2 in 2 different categories
Intermediate
Total Score > 3 but < 5 or Score of 2 in any 1 category
Minor
Total Score < 3
Four cold related adverse health impacts at mass gathering events were identified.
Cold-related events have found low patient presentations rates to on-site medical centres, with an incidence of 15.2 per 10,000 people during the Winter Olympics in Calgary 1988
A 1998 article of a 1922 snowstorm was found from newspaper archives. Although it is not possible to confirm that the numbers fit with the mass gathering definition given above it is considered of interest to include this historic report in this case series. Following heavy snowfall overnight on 29 January 1922, the Knickerbocker Theatre in Washington DC suffered extensive storm damage. The heavy snow on top of the theatre became too much for the roof to handle, it began to give way. The roof collapsed on top of audience members watching a silent comedy resulting in 98 deaths and 133 injuries. At the time there was no on-site health care provision, emergency triage, or mass casualty incident planning. Improvements in building safety as well as international medical triage and mass casualty care have further served to limit future incidences like this
Through previous literature, it appears that heat and cold-related illness provide the highest number of patient presentation to hospitals following mass gathering events. This can be linked to seasonal analysis to enable event and emergency planners to provide adequate medical care ensuring:
Provision of on-site medical care to cope with potential crowd size On-site health promotion to avoid heat or cold related illness Potential use of scoring systems to predict patient presentation Emergency planning to incorporate mass casualty incidents
Large outdoor stadiums face a significant and growing vulnerability. Two case reports were found that relate to mass gatherings and the effect of lightning. One woman in 1998 was struck by lightning while talking on her cellular telephone while at stadium concert inWashington DC, USA. She went on to survive despite several minutes of CPR provided by two by-standers who happened to be a trauma paramedic and a surgical resisdent
Despite recent advances in meteorological technology and the advancement of early warning systems, A 30-30 rule to lightning safety involving simple observation of local weather (Table 4) has the potential to be utilised at future mass gathering events
Adapted from - Holle et al: Bull Amer Meteor Soc.;1999; 80:2035–2042
1. A flash-to-bang (lightning to thuder) count of 30 seconds indicates lightning 10 km away. activity should be suspended and crowd moved to designated shelters. 2. Wait 30 minutes after the last lightning or thunder berfore restarting the event.
The formation of lightning and severe weather safety guidelines and an potential provision of a stadium action plan as perviously been suggested including
Assessment of stadium protection and hazard vulnerability Use of weather early warning systems An evacuation protocol to designated shelters Crowd safety and evacuation tips posted on flyers and programmes
These ideas may have already been used in combination to avert a further disaster on 21 November 2005. At the last home football match of Iowa State University, Officials had known for several days in advance about a severe weather threat. Prior to kick-off a Tornado was located roughly 15 miles away from the event. Flyers and large TV screens were used to inform fans of the impeding weather threat. An evacuation of the stadium was ordered and fans were ushered to safety shelters. The cyclone passed within 3 miles of the event. The game started 40 minutes after the all-clear was given
Unfortunately, despite provision of early warning systems, devastating storms can strike at a moments notice. On August 14 2011 a stage at a fair in Indianna USA collapsed killing 5 and injuring 45 after 70mph winds with rain and hail were reported to have torn down the structure trapping people below, only minutes after a safety announcement was given
A few days later on August 19 2011, a strong hailstorm contributed to the death of 5 people and a further 70 injured as a stage collapsed at the Pukkelpop festival in Belgium. The storm was reported earlier in the evening as sweeping across Belgium, rapidly turning the sky dark over a period of 30 minutes
Both cases highlight the sudden onset of storm behaviour. The average lead time for warning (the amount of time between the issuance of a warning and the touchdown of severe weather) of ‘supercell’ thunderstorms according to the National Severe Storms Laboratory is currently 11 minutes
An early case of a Shigella outbreak from uncooked tofu was found at a major outdoor music festival in 1988. Poor sanitation available on site with limited access to running water was thought to be the cause
23 cases of Hepatitis A were reported in a province of Spain during a soccer championship. Following epidemiologic and environmental investigation, the source of the outbreak was identified as water consumed from a village water fountain
Lake water was identified as the source of 23 cases of Leptospirosis during a triathalon in 1998. Following this it was advised that empirical antibiotic therapy with doxycycline, or a penicillin-based antibiotic should be considered for any presentation of those suspected with Leptospirosis after exposure to outdoor freshwater sources
Infection from live animals exists as a possibility whenever they are in close proximity to a mass gathering event and should also have planning consideration. At the Glastonbury festival UK in 1997, 7 cases of E. Coli O157 presented to hospital, which was attributed to contact with local livestock. Since the event, local organisers have given hygiene recommendations to attendees and cattle are excluded from the site for 2 weeks beforehand
The Centre for Disease Control and Protection (CDC) in Atlanta advocates that ‘Public health surveillance should be implemented at mass gathering events to facilitate rapid detection of outbreaks and other health-related events and enable public health teams to respond with timely control measures’. An important example of syndromic surveillance was described following an outbreak of Meningococcal disease W135 Serogroup at the Hajj in 2000. Over 90 cases in 9 countries were found, with 14 deaths. In France and the UK, patients were contacted and treated with antibiotics, with further prophylactic antibiotics given to those in close contact with patients. From 2001, the health organisers of the Hajj declared that all pilgrims are required to have taken the quadrivalent meningococcal vaccine prior to travelling to the Saudi Arabian region
Each mass gathering event has its own separate risk of extreme weather behaviour and environmental health hazards. Literature on the adverse health effects arising from any mass gathering events is extremely limited with learning points very difficult to identify. However, from the detailed analysis of previous weather or environmental incidents in this review the following learning points for emergency and health resource planners can be applied:
Use of weather surveillance and severe weather early warning systems Medical facilities stocked for a range of weather or environmental hazards Provision of adequate, shade, water facilities and first aid on site Medical care provided by a multi-professional team in relation to crowd size Food and water hygiene and safety regulations followed Local livestock evaluated for potential disease transmission Local public health inclusion in event planning to promote health awareness and provide a basis for post-event syndromic surveillance.
Further studies highlighting the impact of weather and environment hazards to health and their effect on patient presentation to medical centers at mass gathering events and local hospitals are warranted to advance not only the epidemiological knowledge base, but to also gain further lessons of emergency preparedness and response.
With thanks to Mark Nunn of the World Health Organisation and Mark Salter at the Health Protection Agency UK.